THE ATTEMPT ON SIR CP'S LIFE: A CONFESSION

K C S Mani Died with a Guilty Feeling

Ambalapuzha Konattu Madam Chidambara Iyer Subramanian Iyer, known better as K. C. S. Mani (2 March 1922 - 20 September 1987), was a socialist activist of Kerala who is known for his attempt of assassination on C. P. Ramaswamy Aiyar, the then Diwan of Travancore, a princely state in India. This incident was a turning point in the history of Kerala, forcing the Diwan to leave Travancore and flee to Madras after assenting to merge Travancore with the Union of India.

On 18 July 1947, Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma, the Maharaja of Travancore, made the declaration that Travancore would announce sovereignty on 26 August. On 25 July 1947, then-25-year-old Mani attacked the Diwan in front of the erstwhile Music Academy (now the Swathi Thirunal College of Music) in Thiruvananthapuram, following a concert in the evening. Ramaswamy Iyer was wounded. Following the incident on 25 July, the Maharaja informed the Viceroy of India of the decision to join the Union of India.

At the instance of Kumbalath Sanku Pillai, a Congress leader known for physical actions, K C S Mani recorded the story of the assassination attempt. Here is the story in his own words:

K C S Mani

The freedom struggle in Travancore strengthened while I was a student. As a person born in Ambalapuzha, I was inspired by N Sreekantan Nair to jump into politics. I joined the Socialist group. Since they could not do political activity in Travancore, Sreekantan Nair and his associates had shifted their base to Cochin. From there, the Socialist groups helped the State Congress activities in Travancore. When I reached Cochin with Sreekantan Nair, all the major Socialist leaders including K N Gopala Kurup, Mathai Manjooran, Janardanan, A P Pillai,K S Joseph and T P Gopalan were present there. After a few days, myself and A P Pillai were sent to Kollam for political activities, along with Gopala Kurup. Janardanan was part of the team. Kurup had the supervision. He was in charge of the financial resources.

It was a period when the police were on the lookout for political activists. I moved with them like a pet dog, being a novice in politics and a non-speaker.

One day when we were discussing the developments, Kurup all of a sudden, lamented: "If someone had got rid of Sir C P Ramaswamy Aiyar, all the issues would have been solved."

People were really fed up with the administration.

I responded: "Even if Aiyar is gone, someone will be there to replace him and the issues will remain as it is".

"No, issues will get solved if he goes," Kurup explained. He added that Iyer has correctly assessed all the prominent individuals and communities and their weaknesses, like no other. It is impossible for another to match him."

The discussion ended there.

 Janardanan and I moved to a secluded area and discussed it seriously. I needed to have the organising or speaking capacity of Janardanan or other leaders. I wanted to do something for the country. I thought the essence of what Kurup shared gave me clarity on what to do.

"Why not me for the action?"I asked Janardanan.

"If you can, proceed,", Janardanan replied, "but you will not be alive after that. You will be hanged." 

Attack on Sir C P

It seemed Janardanan was unaware of my mental state. I am not boasting; I have never taken life seriously. Life is not as sacred or permanent as to be afraid of death. If my death contributes something to the country, that death will be heroic. Hence I am ready to attack Sir C P-I told Janardanan. Janardanan said that we should discuss the idea with "Annan." We approached Kurup. After hours of discussions, he agreed. But it was not enough. The action needs strong moral and financial support, which will not be forthcoming even in extraordinary situations. We discussed names of Congress leaders, who are courageous enough. Kurup revealed that Kumbalath Sanku Pillai had earlier shared his readiness to support such an action if somebody came forward. He was even ready to face the repercussions.

Sanku Pillai had known Kurup and Janardanan, but not me. Hence it was essential that I win his trust. Sanku Pillai always had shared a dream of his with Kurup-the bust of Sir C P in front of C P Inn in Thampanur should be destroyed. None had come forward till then for the action. Once Sanku Pillai himself had ventured to do it with the help of Kadachikatt Nanu Pillai and they had waited in the compound in vain. The area was always busy.

Janardanan prodded me to show my mettle by destroying the bust."Yes," I agreed.

I could not sleep at all in the night. The body was getting heated up. I was determined to win Sanku Pillai's trust. Thiruvananthapuram was not a familiar place; I had been there only a couple of times.

Sanku Pillai

I discussed again with Janardanan and A P Pilli; We took certain decisions. 

Janardanan gave me word that A P Pillai would accompany me to Thiruvananthapuram. Pillai agreed to show me around the place and arrange the weapons to get the bust destroyed. Pillai selected Chellappan Pillai, a worker at the Rubber Works to help us with these essentials. Chellappan was soft-spoken and had a good physique and courage. He was not at all worried about the repercussions.

Kurup came up with a budget of Rs 10 to implement the whole plan. With that, I boarded the next bus to Thiruvananthapuram and reached the Union office of the Rubber Works at Chakka, by 5 pm, and met Chellappan. By 7 pm, Chellappan came with a hammer. Union leaders K Balakrishnan, K Pankajakshan, and Sadananda Sasthri arrived. Only Balakrishnan was aware of my mission. We spent our time talking till 9 pm, dispersed myself with Chellappan and reached Thampanur. Chellappan's friend and co-worker Velayudhan Pillai was also with us.

It was not easy to accomplish the action and then escape at that hour. We walked to a Theatre, the name of which I don't recollect. The movie was 'Thyagayya." The show was over by 1.30 am. We approached the Sir C P Inn. There was a slight drizzle. Even then the area was not deserted. It was impossible to destroy the bust without the attention of others. But we were not ready to return without accomplishing the mission. We decided to do it, come what may. I asked both Chellappan and Velayudhan to move to the area below the over-bridge on the western side. All three need not be in peril. Though they refused to relent initially, they finally yielded to my pressure and moved away.

I jumped over the western wall of the compound and reached the main gate of the Inn. A car came all of a sudden, seeking a room. I moved away and hid under a tree, A man came out of the Inn and informed the people in the car that rooms were unavailable. I sat under the tree for some more time. My hand accidentally hit a rock. It weighed 5-6 pounds. Holding it in my hand I moved towards the bust. With all my might I hurled towards the bust.

None of us knew of the material with which the bust was made. The rock rebounds after hitting the bust. Though I lost the hope of destroying it, I hit the bust with the hammer three or four times, hard. Nothing happened. Then I hit the nose of it and I could see it cut and thrown away from the body. I heard noises around me, calling for the seizure of the aggressor. I jumped over the iron fence on the southern side and reached the railway premises. I had held the branch of a tree beside the fence to get over it; today the tree has grown up and I have tried to catch the branch several times after that night, in vain.

I met Chellappan and Velayudhan below the Overbridge and we walked to Petta. The three of us were walking weapon depots-we were carrying daggers, knives and axes. I realised for the first time that fear makes man a coward. If someone had asked us where we were going, we would have finished him off.

At Petta, I think we slept in the Union office. I left for Kollam in the morning. The news of the destruction of the bust had reached Kollam before me. It was published in a paper called 'Yuvakeralam'. The paper closed down within a few days.

Sanku Pillai and Gopala Kurupp were arrested. While Kurup was arrested Janardanan was very much inside the home but was spared since they didn't search the place. With the arrest of Kurup, we lost our breadwinner and we decided to surrender. We decided to hold a meeting at Padinjare Kollam, presided over by me, in which Janrdanan would speak. Janardanan was against me getting arrested. But I was not eager to work without him being outside.

We were not even able to raise the cash for buying the paper to make wall posters, announcing the public meeting. We got information that Kannanthodath Janardanan Nair, who had gone underground had arrived in his house at Kureepuzha. He gave me Five rupees; he embraced me "for the action".

We were sure that a surrender would bring us torture and a possible lock-up death. Sanku Pillai came out of Jail on parole to attend the funeral of a senior family member. We met him at Koyivila. The three of us moved away to an isolated place and conspired to assassinate Sir C P.Sanku Pillai offering his wholehearted support. He said he didn't even mind being the first accused in a case related to it. It would be a proud moment, he said.

We were given help by all the youngsters in Karunagapally Taluk; they include Sankara Pillai, Puthan Veetil Ramakrishna Pillai, Nareenchi Karunakaran Pillai, Kovoor Karunakaran Pillai, Mararithottath Raghavan Pillai and Banglavil Madhavan Pillai.

I pledged to assassinate Sir C P during the upcoming Education Conference at Thiruvananthapuram, which Sanku Pillai endorsed. He helped us with some cash and we bid farewell. We reached Thrissur where Sreekantan Nair was camping. Mathai Manjooran sent a person with us to locate the camp. When we briefed him on our plan, he was furious. He didn't approve of two in a group making their own decisions. He expressed disbelief in my capacity to attempt the action.

Our initial decision was to shoot down Sir C P with a revolver. But we were not in a position to pay for it. Our enquiries revealed that a revolver would cost around Rs 1000-1200 in the black market. It needs a lot of training to shoot. Hence we zeroed in on a knife.

We could not accomplish action during the education meeting towards the end of October. I waited for a suitable opportunity. Sanku Pillai came out on parole a couple of times again. We met and told him about the issues involved in procuring and using a revolver and our decision to use a knife instead. He said what is important is to get it done, by hook or crook. Sanku Pillai had no weapons to offer; he guided us to Kaithavanathara Raghavan Pillai, who would get a knife made for us. After a couple of days, he handed over the knife to me. This happened at the end of January 1947.

As days went by, peoples' struggle against Sir CP's Independent Travancore gained momentum. I knew that I would never get a chance if I got isolated in view of the struggle. I waited for an immediate opportunity and it came as news in the dailies-he will be there as a speaker in the anniversary celebrations of the Swati Thirunal Music Academy. The King will inaugurate the function. Sreekantan Nair and Janardanan had banned me from sharing the secret with anyone. But I can't keep anything to myself even now. The move was known to a lot of people associated with Sanku Pillai at Karunagapally. I had informed several youngsters, who were in close contact with us in Thiruvananthapuram. Only two front-line leaders knew of the move: Sanku Pillai and T M Varghese ( According to Sanku Pillai's autobiography, G P Neelakanta Pillai also knew- Ramachandran).

N Sreekantan Nair

As the Academy celebrations drew near, discussions grew stronger. Sreekantan Nair, Janardanan, T P Gopalan, K S Joseph and A P Pillai had worked as a revolutionary committee. The resolution to assassinate Sir C P was discussed officially in this committee. Sreekantan Nair, from the beginning, was not in agreement with me doing the action. His personal commitment towards me and my mother's knowledge that he was behind my political entry, stood in the way. He would be responsible to my mother for my loss. But he didn't express his thoughts openly for the reason that it would be interpreted as cowardice.

He informed the committee that he had another candidate better than me, for the action. Except for Janardanan, everyone on the committee endorsed the view. The committee of 7 dismissed Mani as the candidate.

I had been living with this only intention for the whole year. I had become one with the idea. I had also boasted with many. I would become a laughing stock if I am dismissed. I am committed to the people for this patriotic action.

I begged the committee; they refused to relent. I lost my patience and roared: "I resign from your committee; I am more indebted to Sanku Pillai than you people. This is a question of my self-esteem. I will do it without your help."

Sreekantan Nair budged; all the opposition faded away.

Sreekantan Nair passed a budget of Rs 65 on July 15 to assassinate Sir C P. I bid farewell to my friends and left Thrissur. I reached Cochin at night, with K S Joseph. He had two sten guns with him. We slept at the Congress camp. 

At Cochin, I felt a sudden intuition to see the mother of Sreekantan Nair, Janaki Amma, who had loved me like a son. She was in a critical condition. I reached Ambalapuzha during the night itself, saw her and left early morning for Maririthottam at Karunagapally. The knife was kept there. Taking it, I reached Adur via Kayamkulam. From there, boarding an Express coach, I reached Thiruvananthapuram, by 6pm. I took a room at the TBR Boarding and Lodging, on 19 July.

Most of the leaders had left Thiruvananthapuram, fearing arrest after the killing of Rajendran in the Petta police firing. Some were at Cochin and others at Anchuthengu, which was in British India. Our associates were at Anchuthengu. None of whom I knew were in the city. I had an introduction letter from Krishnan Nair of Cochin, to a friend Sadasivan in Thiruvananthapuram. When I enquired for Sadananda Sasthri, his brother Thankappan informed me that he had left for Anchuthengu. I met Sadasivan and told him of my mission frankly. I sought his help to get a pass to the Academy compound.

K C S Mani, then

Sir C P had left Thiruvananthapuram for Delhi on 19 July, at the invitation of the Viceroy. He was expected back on 25 to be present at the Academy. A sense of fear gripped me. If he doesn't come back? Is the God playing a game? On whose side is the Almighty? 

I waited since there was nothing else to do.

July 25 arrived. At 3 pm, I had a shave and a bath before I stepped outside. A moustache was kept for the evening. I wore a Khaki knicker inside, and a mundu over it.A Khadar Juba,without a Banyan. I had met both Chellappan Pillai and Velayudhan Pillai meanwhile-they agreed to accompany me to the Academy and then wait outside.

I left the hotel spending even the last penny of the budget allotted for the mission. A small amount was due at the hotel. Both Chellappan and Velayudhan came, and we began our journey. I went in. There were chairs in four-five rows, on the two sides of the shamiana (pandal) with a way in the middle. I sat on a chair on the left in the first row. Unfortunately, a Brahmin who had worked in my native town for some time, whom I know, came and sat next to me. We shared some stories. He didn't know that I had become a political activist.

The chopping knife was attached to my knicker, under the mundu. Around 5.30 pm, Sir C P Ramaswamy Iyer reached the venue. He stood in front of me, with his back, waiting for the King to arrive. My hand went to the handle of the knife. I gripped it strongly. Should I now? No, wait a little more. He will be here for a long time. I took my hand off the knife.

From the time I was inside, I was shaken by the feeling that all my actions were absurd. There was no reason for a personal enmity towards him. I had been never sent to a lock-up. I had not been tortured. There had been several people who suffered torture. Why can't one among them?

I was immediately shaken by another feeling that thoughts were becoming unnatural.

I looked at the watch of the person sitting beside me. I looked at the small needle moving around. I remembered the last moments of the characters I have read in fiction; instantly the faces of the poor workers who were killed at Punnapra-Vayalar came as a parade in my mind. I thought of the hapless families. I controlled myself. I have to be thoughtless; I have a mission to accomplish.

I think it was 5.30. The King arrived and he was welcomed by the Dewan and other dignitaries to the dais. The inauguration was over within minutes. Sir C P spoke for some time. He explained the idea of independent Travancore.

The King left after the inauguration. The music concert began. Sir C P and his Political Agent listened to it sitting in the chairs in front of the dais.It was Semmangudi Sreenivasa Iyer,on the concert.I don't remember exactly. At about 7.30 pm Sir C P stood up and began walking out. He has to go out, past me. Here he comes. My heart began beating like the piston of a 150 HP engine that was pumping. I gripped the knife hard. The time has come. The marching bugle began beating in my brain. Chariots and horses passed before me, fiercely. I saw the fluttering tricolour of India, above them.

To move easily, I got rid of the mundu, jumped to the front and hacked with all my might. I think the first blow didn't hit him. I hacked again. I don't remember how many times I did it. If I am to remember and describe it in such detail, I should be an avatar, not a human being. Lights suddenly went off. I don't know how it happened. Somebody seized me.

Both myself and Sir C P were in the midst of a multitude. I could not cut him down to pieces. Lights were on again and went off. I put the knife down, shoved off the ones who held me and came out of the crowd. Fear gripped me; I jumped to one side of rows of chairs. The people who sat on them stood up and moved apart. I appreciated the cowardice of my native brethren for the first time in my life. I came out of the Pandal one after me. All of them were trying to figure out as to what happened to the Dewan. I walked back.

Sir C P in his last days

I could gauge the impulse in my legs to run. But a running man will catch attention and will be caught immediately. Hence I didn't run. At the same time, I was afraid that my legs might lose control and run. I fell down and crawled. I moved towards the fence on the western side. I jumped over the fence, falling down on the drainage road. The strangling noise of the leaves on the fence reverberated like the shots from a thousand field guns. I fell on my knees since the distance from the fence to the road was far more than I had assumed. I felt that I was losing consciousness. It was not a familiar terrain. I didn't even know that a road existed there. The needles on the fence poked holes in my shirt. I got rid of the shirt on the road.

I met Chellappan and Velayudhan at the railway line, after the hotel, where I was staying. We went to Chellappsan's home at Petta. He borrowed through his wife, Rs 10 from a neighbour and we reached our hotel back. We settled the bill, took my dresses and went back to Petta. I spent the night at Chellappan's home. In the morning, I boarded a train to Kadaikavur, and from there, reached Palakkad, via Dindigul. I had something to eat only the next morning at Palakkad since my purse was empty.

I stayed there at the house of Madhava Menon and Sankara Menon, who were the sons of Kollangode King. They had the news from dailies; A P Pillai had told the elder one, who was in Cochin the day before that a person called Ravi did the action. I was welcomed as Raveendranatha Menon, cordially by them. They informed our Thrissur camp of my arrival. Sreekantan Nair, K S Joseph, Janardanan and Gopalan reached Palakkad by evening. I was taken for a safe stay in an estate at Chittoor. I spent several days there, cut off from the outer world.

After a couple of days, the police informed the public that the assailant was Narendran of Petta. Assessing that the police had found out, I was taken to Palakkad. Baby John then was a student at Victoria College. I stayed in his lodge. We got information that the police were groping in the dark. Sir C P left on the 19th day of the attack. I began travelling for free.

I was arrested during the reign of Pattam Thanu Pillai and spent a couple of days in the police lockup. The case was dismissed by the First Class Magistrate at Thiruvananthapuram.

No one still knows how the lights went off at the academy during the episode. Police inferred that it was part of the larger conspiracy. It remains a mystery.

( Translated by Ramachandran )

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POSTSCRIPT:

A Sreedhara Menon, a noted historian, based on research has proved that Sir C P had resigned much before the assassination attempt but was continuing at the request of the King (Triumph and Tragedy in Travancore: Annals of Sir CP's Sixteen Years in Travancore.) In a note to the King (January 11, 1946) he warned that if he declined to join the Union, support of the British army would be necessary. But "English character in general and Englishmen in particular will always swim with the tide. To rely upon British help and assistance would be unwise". Yet, he met Sri Conrad Corfield, Political Adviser to the Viceroy, on February 24, 1946, and claimed an independent status for Travancore (S. Menon, pages 233-4). Sir C P changed his stand after having taken up the active advocacy of the cause of independent Travancore in the interests of the Royal Family after his return to the State.

N Padmanabhan Achari, a renowned ivory carver at the Travancore School of Arts, repaired the nose of Sir C P's bust.He was assisted by K Ramakrishnan Achari. Padmanabhan Achari’s grandfather Kochu Kunju Achari was the head craftsman who made the golden chariot for Swati Tirunal in 1842. Later, he and his son Neelakandan Achari made the ivory throne for the Great London Exhibition of 1851.

Born in Ambalpuzha (Alapuzha dist of Kerala) a traditional Communist stronghold, Mani's ancestors were feudal landlords. He was the son of Chidambara Iyer and Thangam Ammal.

After Independence, Mani served as a member of the local panchayat for more than a decade.

Mani married Lalithammal from Senkottai in 1963 at the Subrahmanya Temple in Valliyur. He was then 41 years old, 18 years older than his wife (who was born in 1940). The proposal was introduced by Mani's sister Lakshmi, who was married from Senkottai. Lakshmi knew Lalitha's father Venkatarama Iyer, who was a motor company mechanic, very well.

According to Lalitha, she was taken by Lakshmi to Konattu Madom in Ambalappuzha, and at that time, Mani was not there. Sometime later, Lakshmi told Lalitha to clean her face and feet in the pond on the southern side. After coming back to the Madom, everyone went to Ambalapuzha Sri Krishna Temple, and while going, she met her future husband speaking to a stranger in an Ayurveda pharmacy. Two weeks later, their marriage was conducted. Mani's hair had already been grey, and his teeth were removed after a serious disease at the age of 30. Mani and Lalitha did not have children. Lalitha outlived him for 30 years, finally dying on June 14, 2017, aged 77.

Mani contested the Kerala Legislative Assembly from the Kuttanad constituency in 1965, as an independent candidate (not the nominee of any political party, But RSP leaders instructed him to submit the nomination, So he could be considered as an RSP Candidate), winning only 920 votes. The election result:

Constituency 96 KUTTANAD 1 . THOMAS JOHN, KC 25319, 51.54% 2 . V. Z. JOB, CON 15067, 30.67% 3. SONNEY SEBASTIAN, IND 7684 15.64% 4 . K. C. S. MANI, IND 920, 1.87% 5 . A. K. SANKARA PILLAI, IND 134, 0.27%, ELECTORS: 64880 VOTERS: 49608 POLL PERCENTAGE: 76.46% VALID VOTES 49124.

Mani felt alienated by the party as well as the state in the later years of his life. He spent his last days abandoned and struggling with diseases. When he suffered from loneliness, he found solace in devotion. The feeling of guilt overpowered him. During some nights, after Ambalapuzha temple was closed, he conducted 'sayana pradakshinam' around the temple. Sometimes, he went to Sabarimala without informing anyone. Mani died on September 20, 1987, at age 65, in the Chest Diseases Hospital, Pulayanarkotta, Thiruvananthapuram.

While with Malayala Manorama, I met Chellappan Pillai in 1996 at his home to do a larger story on the attempt. K Pankajakshan, Secretary of the RSP, facilitated the contact. I could not complete the story then.

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Illustration of the attack done by Sarath Sunder Rajeev, Assistant Professor, Dept of Architecture, College of Engineering, Thiruvananthapuram. Padmanabhan Achari is his great grand uncle and Ramakrishnan Achari, maternal great-grandfather.

© Ramachandran 

BURNING OF LIBRARIES IN KERALA BY JESUITS & TIPU

But a Syriac Bible Manuscript Survived

We the Keralites,who love books and letters know many rich libraries of the world, like Alexandria have been burnt; but we don't know a rich libray in Angamaly in Kerala, South India was burnt in 1599, immediately after the Synod at Udayamperur, Kochi.  Also, Tipu Sultan burnt the Christian libraries.

The Synod held  on 20-26 June 1599, was a turning point in the history of Syrian Christians in Kerala and in the history of the State as a whole. It created a huge fissure in communal harmony. Out of 18 priests from Angamaly, nobody attended this Synod. After this,the furious Arch Bishop of Goa, Dom Aleixo de Menezes (1559-1617), who convened the Diamper Synod, destroyed the library at Angamaly.

Aleixo de Mrenezes

On 14 December, 1806, Dr. Claudius Buchanan, Chaplain and Vice Pricipal of the College at Fort William, Calcutta visited Angamaly and in his letters, described the incident: 

“Angamale was formerly the seat of the Archbishop of the Syrian churches in the Mountains of Malabar. In the town of Angamale there are three churches within a quarter of a mile from each other, in all of which service is still performed. The cathedral church is the largest, and contains the tombs of Bishops and Archbishops for many centuries. As I approached the town of Angamale in the evening, I heard the “sullen roar” of the great bell reverberating through the mountains. When the Romish Archbishop Menezes visited this place in 1599, the Christians strewed the way up the hill with the flowers as he advanced. And yet he came to burn the ancient libraries and Archives of Angamale. As the flame ascended, the old priests wept; but they were obliged to hide their tears, dreading the inquisition at Goa.”

Gouvea in Jornada (1603) also reports, that there was an archive attached to the Bishopric of Angamaly where the most important ecclesiastical documents were preserved. In Portuguese Christian documents, it could be seen that frequent usage of the word ‘serra’, meaning mountain region, which indicates the location of Angamaly.

As per folklore, Angamaly is considered to be the origin and main centre of Syrian Christians and from there it flourished entire Malabar (Kerala).There were Archdecons (head of community) and bishops residing at Angamaly. 

The three ancient big Christian churches within a kilometere, located in a straight street, are unique and marvellous in the history of churches. It is recorded that the first church of Angamaly, dedicated to St. George, was used both by the catholics and Jacobites till 1750. In this church there was a chapel, which was dedicated to St. George, where both the Catholics and the Jacobites conducted their services in cordial manner, emerges the ecumenism between these two communities. The second church was the church of Hormisdas, the Cathedral church,which was either built or renovated by Mar Abraham, exclusively used by the Catholics.

It was in 1570s, that Mar Abraham started the construction work of this church of St.Hormisdas. Its earlier name Homusio was transformed to Hormisdas by Alexis Menezes. St.Hormisdas or St.Hormis Abbot was a Chaldean saint of the 7th century. He was a monk in the monastery of Robban Bar-Etha. At Angamaly, the Eastern Church (Cathedral church) was dedicated to his name. But the name of St. Hormis Abbot was replaced by St. Hormis, in the Udaympeur Synod (1599), Xth decree, by attributing St Hormis Abbot as Nestorian. The third church was dedicated to St. Mary, under Jacobite community.

In 9th century, when the old Crangannore town (Kodungalloor) was attacked by Mohammedans, the Christian inhabitants left Kodugallur and approached the Alangad King to inform their grievances. Tradition says that sometimes after the 9th century the Arabs set fire to Makodi and that the Christians fled to Angamaly which then became their Headquarters. 

The King offered protection to them by developing a town and church exclusively for the colonial Syrian Christians concentrated at Angamaly. This church in the name of St Mary was handed over to Jacobite community which formed after Koonen Cross oath (1653) by splitting the Syrian Christian community in Malabar. It is believed that Angamaly was the main town or part of Makothavirapatnam. An  argument is that, there was a community of Syrian Christians and the Archdeacons governed the civil matters of this community from 3rd century onwards, at Angamaly. 

Even though Angamaly was the origin of Syrian Christian community and the first seat of Bishop House, there is no authentic evidence available about its generation period. In an account of a foreign missionary Fr. M.Karniarro who visited Angamaly in 1557, there is a narration about the establishments of a University for priests ( Malpan training) and a Christian church at Angamaly.

Fr. Karniarro recorded:

‘In the region of Angamale the Christians have their university; a Cassanar who is like a father among the Thomas Christians in whom they had great confidence on account of his great age and learning; it is fifty years since he began teaching sacred scriptures and he has many disciples from all parts of Malabar’.

In 1563, when Mar Abraham was ordained as the bishop of Angamaly diocese, St. Hormis East church was the cathedral church where Mar Abraham resided.

 

St George Basilica, Angamaly

When in 1503 the Catholicos Elias V consecrated three Bishops for Christians in India, he conferred upon Mar Yahballaha the title, "The Metropolitan of India and China." The initialy good relationship of the East Syriac Christians to the Portuguese had gradually deteriorated, and the Portuguese sought to hinder the arrival of the new Bishops from Mesopotamia. Bishop Mar Dinkha had to flee inland in 1534. In 1558 the Latin Diocese of Goa was elevated to an Arch Diocese. At this time, basing his claim on a papal bull, John (Yuhannan) Sulaqa extended his jurisdiction over India. The East Syriac Catholicos Shimun VIII Dinkha finally opposed this action, consecrated Mar Abraham Bishop in 1557, and sent him to India. The influence of the Catholicos was still in force, though there were in India at this time East Syrian, Chaldean and Latin hierarchies operating in parallel. Since the colonial power Portugal had sponsored first the Latin and then the Chaldean Church, the direction of development during this time was clear. After the Haldean Bishop Mar Joseph was handed over to the Inquisition, Patriarch Abdisho IV named a new Metropolitan, who tried to come to an arrangement with Rome. He was,however recalled by the Pope.

Regarding this matter, the Arch Bishop of Goa declared that in the future the Syrian Christians would come under the authority not of the Patriarch of the "Chaldeans" but rather the King of Portugal. It is difficult to say whether this political decree took effect at the grass roots.A prayer book written in 1562 in Angamaly-the seat of an East Syriac Archdiocese-indicates that the East Syriac liturgy was still in use there. In 1585/86 the Jesuit F Roz who knew Malayalam and Syriac, examined several liturgical books and determined that the "heterodoxies"  of Nestorius, Diodore of Tarsus,and Theodore of Mopsuestia could be found within. A 1585 Synod tried to cut off the Syrian Christians' contact with the Chaldeans. 

Menezes, one of the preachers at the court of King Philip II at Madrid, was appointed Archbishop of Goa in the year 1594, being then only 35 years of age, and in the following year, 1595, he landed at Goa. He held a brief from Pope Clement VIII, dated 27 February 1595, empowering him to enquire into the teaching and conduct of Mar Abraham, to visit that diocese, to appoint a Vicar Apostolic to take charge of the diocese and to bring the Syrian Christians into conformity with Rome. Before the Archbishop took any action on these powers, he received intelligence that the aged Mar Abraham had applied to the Nestorian Patriarch for a successor and he at once issued orders to all the Portuguese ports to stop any such bishop.

These orders were in time and a Nestorian bishop and priest on their way to the Malabar coast were intercepted at Ormuz and were sent back to their own country. The Archbishop was on tour in the north of the Portuguese territory when, through an express from the Viceroy of Goa, Francisco da Gama,he received the news of the death of Mar Abraham. He at once appointed Father Francis Roz, the Rector of the Seminary at Vaipicotta as Administrator of the vacant 'Angamale' diocese, but this appointment was kept back by the Council at Goa as unwise and the Archbishop, hearing their views, cancelled the appointment of Francis Roz and appointed the Syrian Archdeacon George as Administrator, directing him to make the usual profession of Faith.

For some time the Archdeacon gave no sign but at last he plucked up courage to be openly hostile and to show his hand. At Angamaly he assembled a Synod in which solemn resolutions were passed to acknowledge no bishops but those sent by the Nestorian Patriarch. The Latin priests and the pupils of the Vaipicotta Seminary were refused entrance into the Syrian churches and the rupture between the Syrian Christians and the Portuguese was complete. 

Hearing this news Archbishop Menezes at Goa resolved to go in person to the Angamale diocese and on the spot to endeavour to bring the Syrian Christians into conformity with Rome. When the Archdeacon George heard that the Archbishop was on his way to Cochin, he yielded so far as to go through the form of giving a verbal assent to a profession of faith which the Franciscan Fathers read aloud to him in the Church at Vypin. The Archbishop landed at Cochin on 1 February 1599, and accompanied by Archdeacon George, went on tour to the various Syrian Churches. The narrative of his journey, told at length in Gouvea's Jornada, is reproduced by Hough in his Christianity in India.

In 1599,in order to avoid Schism, the so called Synod of Diamper was held under the leadership of Archbishop Menezes of Goa. There the decrees of the Council of Trent were declared binding,the Roman calendar introduced,and the liturgy revised on the Roman model. Nestorius was condemned as a heretic, and allegedly Hindu customs were forbidden.Under duress,150 priests and 660 laymen signed decrees stating that the Church of East India should be entirely subjected to Roman central authority.

The Portuguese gathered the manuscripts of Syrian Christians ans systematically burned them. Thus the Syriac medieval Christian literature of India was almost completely lost. A notable exception is MS 64 from the library of the Metropolitan of Thrissur in Kerala, which contains the Nomacanon of Abdisho bar Brika from from 1290, that is, from within the lifetime of its writer. This is therefore the earliest known East Syriac manuscript from India. The decree XVI ordered that all the Syriac MSS should be handed over to the Archbishop or his deputy on a visit to the Churches. Due to the lack of printed books, the Qurbana MSS were excluded from this.

Buchanan Bible at Cambridge

The Synod prohibited the use of many heretic books. These books are listed below.

The Infancy of our Saviour (The History of our Lady/Language: Syriac)

This book contained the following concepts, which are against Catholic creed:

1. The annunciation of the angel was made in the Temple of Jerusalem, which contradicts the Gospel of St. Luke, which says it was made in Nazareth.
2. Joseph had another wife and children when he was betrothed to Mary.
3. Child Jesus was reproved for his naughty tricks.
4. Child Jesus went to school and learned from them.
5. St. Joseph, suspecting Mary of adultery, took her to priests, who gave her the water of jealousy to drink; that Mary brought forth with pain, and parting from her company, not being able to go farther, she retired to a stable at Bethlehem.
6. None of the saints are in heaven but are all in a terrestrial paradise, where they should remain till the Day of Judgement.

Book of John Barialdan (Language: Syriac)

This book contained the following concepts which are against Catholic creed:

1. In Christ, there were two persons: divine and human.
2. The names Christ and Emmanuel are that of only the human person, so the name Jesus should not be adored.
3. The union of incarnation is common to all the three divine persons, who were all incarnated.
4. The union of the incarnation is only an accidental union of love.

The Procession of the Holy Spirit (Language: Persian)

This book contained the following concept which is against Catholic creed:

1. The Holy Spirit proceeds only from the Father, and not from the Son.

Margarita Fidei (The Jewel)

This is written by Abed Isho, a Nestorian prelate. This book contained the following concepts which are against Catholic creed:

1. Mary is not ought to be called the mother of God, but only the mother of Christ.
2. In Christ there are two persons, the one of the Word, and the other of Jesus.
3. The union of the incarnation is only an accidental union of love and power and not a substantial union.
4. Out of three distinct faiths Nestorian, Jacobite, and Roman, only the Nestorian faith is the true one taught by the Apostle, and the Roman faith is false and heretical.
5. Matrimony is not a sacrament.
6. The fire of hell is metaphorical, not real.
7. Roman Church is fallen from the faith as they do not celebrate in leavened bread.

Fathers (Language: Unknown)

This book contained the following concepts which are against Catholic creed:

1. Mary ought not to be called the mother of God.
2. The Patriarch of Nestorians is the universal head of the Church immediately under Christ.
3. The fire of hell is not real, but spiritual.
4. It is heresy to say God was born, or died.
5. There are two persons in Christ.

Life of Abed Isho (Language: Arabic)

This book contained the following concepts which are against Catholic creed:

1. The whole Trinity was incarnated.
2. St. Cyril of Alexandria, who condemned Nestorius, was a heretic and is now in hell, for having taught, that there is only one person in Christ.
3. Nestorius, Theodoras and Diodorus are saints and are blessed.
4. None of the saints are in heaven but are all in a terrestrial paradise, where they should remain till the Day of Judgement.
5. God dwelt in Christ as in a rational temple, giving him the power to do all the good things he did.
6. The souls of the just will be in a terrestrial paradise till the Day of Judgement.

Book of Synods (Language: Syriac)

It contains a forged letter of Pope Caius, with false subscriptions of many other Western Bishops, directed to Nestorian Bishops, wherein it is acknowledged that the Church of Rome ought to be subject to Nestorian church.

This book contained the following concepts which are against Catholic creed:

1. The Roman Church is fallen from the faith, having perverted the canons of the Apostles, by the force of heretical emperors' arms.
2. The Romans are heretics, for not celebrating in leavened bread.
3. All Bishops who followed Nestorius ought to be much esteemed and styled saints and their relics must be revered.
4. Matrimony is not a sacrament. It may be dissolved for the bad conditions of the parties.
5. Usury is lawful, and there is no sin in it.

Book of 'Timothy the Patriarch' (Language: Persian)

This book contained the following concept which is against Catholic creed:

1. That the true body of our Lord Christ is not there in the sacrament of the altar, but only its figure.

Domingo or Letter of the Lord's-day (Language: Malayalam)

A letter believed to have come from heaven, in which the Roman Church is accused of having fallen from the faith.

Maclamatas (Language: Syriac)

It claims the distinction of two persons in Christ, and the accidental union of the incarnation is proved.

Uguarda or Rose (Language: Greek)

This book contained the following concepts which are against Catholic creed:

1. There are two persons in Christ.
2. The union of the incarnation was accidental.
3. When Mary brought forth with pain, the sons of Joseph, which he had by his other wife, went for a midwife to her.

Camiz (Language: Syriac)

This book contained the following concept which is against Catholic creed:

1. The Divine Word and the Son of the Virgin Mary are not the same.

Menra (Language: Hebrew)

This book contained the following concepts which are against Catholic creed:

1. Christ is only the image of the Word.
2. The substance of God dwelt in Christ as in a temple.
3. Christ is next to the divinity and was made the companion of God.

Book of Orders (Language: Tamil)

This book contained the following concepts which are against Catholic creed:

1. The form, and not the matter, is necessary to orders.
2. There are only two orders: diaconate and priesthood.
3. Altars of wood, and not of stone, are to be consecrated.

It also contains prayers for those converted to Nestorianism from any other sect.

Book of Homilies (Language: Arabic)

This book contained the following concepts which are against Catholic creed:

1. The Eucharist is only the image of Christ and is distinguished from him, as an image is from a true man.
2. The body of Jesus Christ is not there in Eucharist, nor anywhere else but in heaven.
3. The whole Trinity was incarnate.
4. Christ is only the temple of the Divinity, and God only by representation.
5. The soul of Christ descended not into hell but was carried to the paradise of Eden.

It also contains:

1. Letters from some Nestorian synods, in which it is said that the Nestorian Patriarch is not subject to the Roman Bishop.
2. An oath to be taken to the Nestorian Patriarch, as the head of the church, wherein people swear to obey him, and him only, and not the Bishop of Rome.

An Exposition of the Gospels (Language: Syriac)

This book contained the following concepts which are against Catholic creed:

1. There are two persons in Christ.
2. Christ is a pure creature.
3. He was obliged to adore God, and stood in need of prayer.
4. He was the temple of the holiest Trinity.
5. Christ's soul, when he died, descended not into hell, but was carried to the paradise of Eden.
6. Mary deserved to be reproved as well as the rest of the Jews for having vainly imagined that she was mother to one that was to be a great King; looking upon Christ as no other than a pure man and presuming that he was to have a temporal empire.
7. Evangelists did not record all Christ's actions in truth as they were not present at many of them.
8. The wise men that came from the East received no favor from God for their journey, neither did they believe in Christ.
9. Christ was the adopted Son of God, and not God's natural Son.
10. Christ received new grace in baptism, which he had not before.
11. Christ is only the image of the Word and the pure temple of the Holy Spirit.
12. Eucharist is only the image of the body of Christ, which is only in heaven at the right hand of the Father, and not here on earth.
13. Christ, as pure man, did not know when the Day of Judgement was to be.
14. When St. Thomas put his hand into Christ's side, and said, "My Lord and my God!" he was not speaking to Christ as God, but it was only an exclamation made to God on such a miracle.
15. The authority that Christ gave to St. Peter over the church was the same that he gave to other priests, so his successors have no more power or jurisdiction than other bishops.
16. Mary is not the mother of God.
17. The First Epistle of St. John, and that of St. James, are not the writings of those Apostles, but of some other persons of the same name, and therefore are not canonical.

Book of Hormisda Raban (Language: Greek)

This book contained the following concepts which are against Catholic creed:

1. Nestorius was a saint and martyr and suffered for the truth.
2. St. Cyril, who persecuted him, was the priest and minister of the devil and is now in hell.
3. Images are filthy and abominable idols, and ought not to be adored.
4. St. Cyril, as a heretic, invented and introduced them.

Book of Lots (Language: Aramaic)

It contains many non-Christian rituals and practices such as:

1. Ring of Solomon
2. Choice of good days to marry upon, and for several other uses.

A book of unknown title which is a Nestorian version of Flos Sanctorum (Language: Syriac)

Describes the lives of many Nestorian saints.

Parisman or Persian Medicine (Language: Persian)

It contains:

1. Many sorceries.
2. Certain methods whereby one may do mischief to their enemies and may gain women.
3. The strange names of devils, that whosoever shall carry the names of seven of them about him writ in a paper shall be in no danger of any evil.
4. Many exorcisms for the casting out of devils, mixing some Christian words with others that are not intelligible.
5. The invocation of the Most Holy Trinity, often desiring the doing of lewd things and enormous sins, joining the merits of Nestorius and his followers, many times, in the same prayer with those of the Blessed Virgin, and those of their devils with those of the holy angels.

The decree XVI ordered that all the Syriac MSS should be handed over to the Archbishop or his deputy on a visit to the Churches. Due to the lack of printed books, the Qurbana MSS were excluded from this.Some of the other books which are said to have been burnt at the Synod of Diamper are:

1. The book of the infancy of the savior (history of our Lord)
2. Book of John Brandon
3. The Pearl of Faith
4. The Book of the Fathers
5. The Life of the Abbot Isaias
6. The Book of Sunday
7. Maclamatas
8. Uganda or the Rose
9. Comiz
10. The Epistle of Mernaceal
11. Menra
12. Of orders
13. Homilies (in which the Eucharist is said to be the image of Christ)
14. Exposition of Gospels
15. The Book of Rubban Hormisda
16. The Flowers of the Saints
17. The Book of Lots
18. The Parsimony or Persian Medicines.

In the vaults of the Cambridge University library in England lies one of the most important relics of the Christianity in India. It is the only surviving copy of the Buchanan Bible. First ever book to be translated and printed in Malayalam. Sometime between the 9th and 12th centuries, in the remote region of Tur Abdin, on the border of Turkey and Syria, someone prepared a copy of the Syriac Bible and dispatched it to India. It came into the posession of the Jacobite Church.

After the Synod of 1599, clerics of the Syrian Church were advised to bring their religious texts to correct the errors in their Bible. All the copies of the Syrian Bible were declared heretical and ordered to be burnt. Before the Church had time to react,they were destroyed. This was followed by the destruction of the huge library of the Syrian Church at Angamaly. Only a single copy of the Syriac Bible survived in a remote church in central Malabar. In 1807 when Buchanan was in Kerala,Mar Dionysius showed this copy to him. The Church gifted it to Buchanan. He donated it to the University of Cambridge in 1809.

Syrian Orthodox Church,which follows the Patriarch of Antioch in Syria,follows its own version of the Bible known as the Peshitta Bible which was compiled at the end of the 3rd century CE.Peshitta means, straight or simple. It was written in Syriac, a dialect of Aramaic. Aramaic was the language of Jesus.

It is believed that, by a quirk of fate, only a single manuscript of the Syriac Bible survived. K R N Swamy in his book, Mughals, Maharajas and Mahatma, writes how the invitation to the Synod had not reached one of the remote mountain churches in Central Malabar, where this Bible was kept.

F Ros monument,St Thomas Church,N Parur

Buchanan donated this original Syriac Bible with 25 other Syriac manuscripts. It would have been the oldest Bible in India, if it remained here. It was from this manuscript, Philipose Ramban of Kayamkulam, with Thimmayya Pillai, made an incomplete translation and printed it in the Courier Press, Bambay in 1811. 

After the Synod, the Syrian Christians became a filial church of the Latin Church, and their connection with the Catholicos was severed. 1599 is portrayed as the darkest year of Indian church history. It is nevertheless typical that the Jesuit F Roz, who eventually became the Latin hierarch of the Syrian Christians from 1599 to 1624, reached the conclusion: "These Christians are certainly the earliest in this part of the Orient...Although they have lived under the heathens, Jews and Mohammedans, they have remained steadfast in their faith to this day." 

In the known history of Syrian Christians, the first regional Synod was convened at Angamaly in 1583, in which Mar Abraham presided. In this Synod various important decisions were taken regarding the corrections in the liturgical books of Syrians, establishment of Vaipicotta seminary etc.

Mar Abraham died in January, 1597 at Angamaly and his body was buried in the Cathedral church (St. Hormis or East church, Angamaly). Angamaly was the first Archdiocese in India and the jurisdiction of the Angamaly at that time, extended over the whole of India, and the metropolitans were designated as ‘of India’ or ‘all India’ ( metropolita w- tha’ rad-kollah hendo). After Mar Abrham’s demise, the superior of Archdiocese, Goa, Menezes degraded Angamaly and brought it under the control of Goa Archdiocese by appointing Fr. Francisco Ros as Bishop of Angamaly.

The disgraceful activities of Menezes, enraged the Syrian Christians of Angamaly. They struggled to recapture the lost Archdiocese seat of Angamaly. The Archdeacon Geevarghese also, with the support of native Christian community, protested against the biased movements of Menezes. In addition, there was a strong power of Nazarani soldiers under Archdecon. It is very interesting to review the past history of these soldiers, who were trained in different types of fights, centered at Angamally. There were more than fifty thousand trained Nazarani soldiers (belongs to ‘Amoci’ or ‘Chaver’ – were persons who swore to give their lives to protect a person) who were ready to serve the local rulers and also to take care of Syrian Christians. Menezes tried to convene a Synod to establish his interests without obtaining permission from Rome. But he was not daring to organize this Synod at Angamaly as it was the dominant center of Syrian Christians and Nazrani soldiers. So he selected a safe place to conduct this ‘Angamaly Synod’ at Udayamperur where he managed to get the support of king of Kochi and Portuguese soldiers. 

Thus the synod was held at Udayamperur in 1599.

Syriac script on the wall of St Mary's Jacobite Church,Angamaly

The Portuguese arrived in India during 16th century.The Portuguese ‘padroado’ was come into force in 4th August 1600 at Angamaly. The Padroado is a system which means the royal protection of the King of Portugal over the churches in the territories occupied by the Portuguese. It had its origin with the Popes themselves. In 1603, Mar Ross convened another local Synod at Angamaly. Its aim was to rectify the drawbacks of decisions taken in the invalid synod of Udayamperur. In 1608, the Archdiocese seat at Angamaly was retrieved; but its title was changed to that of Cranganore (Kodungalloor). However, Mar Ros did not reside at Kodungalloor.

After this, there was the burning of Christian libraries in Kerala, by Tipu Sultan.

A Portuguese Franciscan missionary, Frey Viacente de Lagos started a College Seminary at Crangannore in 1541. He had the support of the bishop of the St. Thomas Christians, Mar Jacob (1502- 1522) and of Fr. George, a St. Thomas Christian priest who studied in Portugal. St. Francis Xavier in his letter to the king of Portugal praised the attempt of Frey Viacente. There were about 100 students when the saint wrote this letter. This seminary was a failure because the missionaries did not take care to teach Syriac, the liturgical language of the Syrian Christians. Hence those who studied there could not administer the sacraments in the parishes of the Syrian Christians. The priests who were ordained here, were disowned by them.

They served the Latin diocese of Cochin. Mar Joseph, the successor of Mar Jacob, refused to ordain anyone who had studied in this seminary because of the lack of knowledge of Syriac. This Seminary was under the jurisdiction of Goa. The college continued to be under the Franciscans even after the establishment of Vaippicotta Seminary by the Jesuits. This college was a success in the sense that it produced well trained and good Latin priests from the community of the Syrian Christians. Since those trained there could be of no use to the Syrian Christians themselves, they stopped sending their children to this seminary and thus it came to an end.

The Jesuits started a seminary at Vaippicotta in 1581 for Syrian Christians. Fr. Francis Roz was the Rector and he taught Syriac in 1584. The excellent teaching in the seminary really attracted the Syrian Christians and they sent their children to it. It was under the jurisdiction of Mar Abraham (1567-'97), bishop of the Syrian Christians. This seminary became very famous. It was staffed by the Jesuits. There were 50 or 60 students who were taught the Humanities, Latin, Chaldean, the Cases of conscience, the rudiments of catholic faith and of the liturgy.

In 1627, the yogam (assembly) at Edapally decided to suppress Malpanates and to give instructions to send the students to Vaipicotta seminary. The following directions were given to the seminary : To limit the number of admissions to Vaipicotta seminary To select candidates from noble families To select only the best to priesthood To teach others to live as good Christians Regarding the piety and exemplary life of the students of this seminary, there is a report of 1597. They increase more and more every day in number as well as in diligence to piety. Every fifteen days they receive the sacraments, sometimes more frequently. They do various penances and fasts. They are taught Syriac and Latin. They recite prayers at fixed hours every day. They speak about divine things with ardour.

When the Dutch captured the Portuguese possession of Cochin in 1663, the Jesuits were expelled from Vaippicotta and the seminary was turned to an asylum for lepers. They shifted the seminary to their house at Ambazhakad started in 1662. At Ambazhakad the seminary for the Syrians was different from the Jesuit house of studies. This seminary was closed down legally with the suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1773. It was destroyed in 1789 with the raid of Tipu Sultan,and the library burnt.

Ruins of Vypikotta Seminary

Tipu Sultan's invasion of the Malabar had an adverse impact on the Syrian Malabar Nasrani community of the Malabar coast. Many churches in the Malabar and Cochin were damaged. The old Syrian Nasrani seminary at Angamaly which had been the center of Catholic religious education for several centuries was razed to the ground by Tipu's soldiers. A lot of centuries old religious manuscripts were lost forever. The church was later relocated to Kottayam where it still exists to this date. The Mor Sabor church at Akaparambu and the Martha Mariam Church attached to the seminary were destroyed as well. Tipu's army set fire to the church at Palayoor and attacked the Ollur Church in 1790. Furthernmore, the Arthat church was also destroyed.

Over the course of this invasion, many Syrian Malabar Nasranis were killed or forcibly converted to Islam. Most of the coconut, arecanut, pepper and cashew plantations held by the Syrian Malabar farmers were also indiscriminately destroyed by the invading army. As a result, when Tipu's army invaded Guruvayur and adjacent areas, the Syrian Christian community fled Calicut and small towns like Arthat to new centres like Kunnamkulam, Chalakudi, Ennakadu, Cheppadu, Kannankode, Mavelikkara, etc. where there were already Christians. They were given refuge by Sakthan Tampuran, the ruler of Cochin and Karthika Thirunal, the ruler of Travancore, who gave them lands, plantations and encouraged their businesses. Colonel Colin Maculay, the British resident of Travancore also helped them.

Mural of St Thomas/St Mary's Church

In Indian history, another notable destruction of a library was in Nalanda.

In around 1193 CE, Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji, a Turkic chieftain out to make a name for himself, was in the service of a commander in Awadh. The Persian historian, Minhaj-i-Siraj in his Tabaqat-i Nasiri, recorded his deeds a few decades later. Khilji was assigned two villages on the border of Bihar which had become a political no-man's land. Sensing an opportunity, he began a series of plundering raids into Bihar and was recognised and rewarded for his efforts by his superiors. Emboldened, Khilji decided to attack a fort in Bihar and was able to successfully capture it, looting it of a great booty. Minhaj-i-Siraj wrote of this attack:

"Muhammad-i-Bakht-yar, by the force of his intrepidity, threw himself into the postern of the gateway of the place, and they captured the fortress, and acquired great booty. The greater number of the inhabitants of that place were Brahmans, and the whole of those Brahmans had their heads shaven; and they were all slain. There were a great number of books there; and, when all these books came under the observation of the Musalmans, they summoned a number of Hindus that they might give them information respecting the import of those books; but the whole of the Hindus had been killed. On becoming acquainted [with the contents of those books], it was found that the whole of that fortress and city was a college, and in the Hindui tongue, they call a college [مدرسه] Bihar."

Ruins of Nalanda University

This passage refers to an attack on a Buddhist monastery (the "Bihar" or Vihara) and its monks (the shaved Brahmans).The exact date of this event is not known with scholarly estimates ranging from 1197 to 1206.While many historians believe that this monastery which was mistaken for a fort was Odantapura, some are of the opinion that it was Nalanda itself.However, considering that these two Mahaviharas were only a few kilometres apart, both very likely befell a similar fate. The other great Mahaviharas of the age such as Vikramshila and later, Jagaddala, also met their ends at the hands of the Turks at around the same time.

Another important account of the times is the biography of the Tibetan monk-pilgrim, Dharmasvamin, who journeyed to India between 1234 and 1236. When he visited Nalanda in 1235, he found it still surviving, but a ghost of its past existence. Most of the buildings had been damaged by the Muslims and had since fallen into disrepair. But two viharas, which he named Dhanaba and Ghunaba, were still in serviceable condition with a 90-year-old teacher named Rahula Shribhadra instructing a class of about 70 students on the premises. Dharmasvamin believed that the Mahavihara had not been completely destroyed for superstitious reasons as one of the soldiers who had participated in the desecration of a Jnananatha temple in the complex had immediately fallen ill.

Nalanda was India's second oldest University after Thakshila. Spread over an area of 14 hectares, it was the principal seat of learning fthe from the last century BCE till the Turkish invasion of 1193. It is estimated that 9 million manuscripts were destroyed. The library burned for three months, in three multi storeyed buildings, one of which had nine storeys.

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Reference:

1.The Church of the East: A Concise History/ Wilhelm Baum, Dietmar W. Winkler
2.Travancore Resident G T Mackenzie's Chapter on Christianity,dated 23 October 1901 to V Nagam Aiya's Travancore Manual

© Ramachandran