KALIDASA'S CONQUEST OF GERMANY

Sakuntalam Conquered Germany

The famous German poet Novalis (Georg Philipp Hardenberg-1772-1801), a close friend of philosopher Friedrich Schlegel, was inspired by Kalidasa's play, Abhinjana Sakuntalam. The death of his fiance Sophie von Kuhn, in her early youth, became merged in his mind with the German perception of India as the cradle of humanity, resulting in his romantic mystery poem about her, Hymns to the Night. In the poem, he united the values of the departed young soul of Sophie with the values of Hinduism, reflecting Friedrich Maier’s (who translated Bhagavad Gita into German in 1802) definition of Sanskrit poetry as Morgentraume unseres Geschlechtes, "the childhood dream of our species." (1)

In 1795, Novalis met the 12-year-old Sophie von Kühn. He became infatuated with her on their first meeting. In 1795, two days before Sophie turned thirteen they got secretly engaged. Later that year, Novalis's brother Erasmus supported the couple, but the rest of Novalis's family resisted agreeing to the engagement due to Sophie's unclear aristocratic pedigree.

Novalis

In the final months of 1795, Sophie began to suffer declining health due to a liver tumour. She underwent liver surgery in Jena, without anaesthesia. In January 1797, to earn a stable income for the intended marriage, Novalis accepted the job of an auditor to the salt works at Weissenfels. Sophie once more became extremely ill, during which time Novalis's parents finally agreed to the couple's engagement. However, two days after her fifteenth birthday, Sophie died, while Novalis was still in Weissenfels. Four months later, Novalis's brother Erasmus, who had been diagnosed with tuberculosis, also died. These tragedies affected Novalis deeply. Sophie's death became the central inspiration for one of the few works Novalis published in his lifetime, Hymnen an die Nacht (Hymns to the Night). Inspired by Kalidasa, he lamented in Hymns to the Night:

What yet doth hinder our return
To loved ones long reposed?
Their grave limits our lives.
We are all sad and afraid.
We can search for nothing more —
The heart is full, the world is void.

Infinite and mysterious,
Thrills through us a sweet trembling —
As if from far there echoed thus
A sigh, our grief resembling.
Our loved ones yearn as well as we,
And sent to us this longing breeze.

Kalidasa, the greatest Sanskrit poet of ancient India, became known in Europe in the last decade of the 18th century, through a translation of William Jones. At that time the English colonial rulers controlled more than half of all of India.

Sir William Jones (1746-1794) took over the post of puisne judge in the Supreme Court of Bengal in 1783 and founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784. In 1789, just at the outbreak of the French Revolution, he published an English prose translation of Kalidasa’s Sanskrit drama Abhinjana Sakuntalam. Jones translated Sakuntalam into English as Shakuntala or the Fatal Ring. An astonished Europe, which knew only of the Greek tragedy, realised that ancient India had known the stage play, from ancient times. Jones called Kalidasa the Indian Shakespeare—a lame comparison because Kalidasa preceded him by at least more than ten centuries.

Jones actually completed his first translation of Kalidasa’s drama in Latin. He then rendered it word for word into English, without suppressing any material sentence and disengaged it from the stiffness of a foreign idiom and prepared the faithful translation. (2)

From then on India’s eternal spiritual values expressed through her immortal Sanskrit literature conquered the great creative minds in the West. The Abhijnana Sakuntalam of the fourth-century poet Kalidasa was in demand in the West for India’s eternal values. The influential French Indologist Sylvian Levi (1863-1935) wrote: (3)

"The name of Kalidasa dominates Indian poetry and epitomizes it brilliantly. The drama is a grand and scholarly epic, a truly classical masterpiece, which India admires and humanity recognizes. The praise which is saluting the birth of Shakuntala at Ujjayini has existed over long centuries, bringing illumination from one world to the other since William Jones revealed it to the West."

Lévi's book Théâtre Indien is an important work on the subject of Indian performance art.

Will Durant took note of the event thus: "In 1789 Sir William Jones opened his career as one of the greatest Indologists by translating Kalidasa’s Sakuntala; this translation, re-rendered into German in 1791, profoundly affected Herder and Goethe, and through the Schlegels (Friedrich and August)- the entire Romantic movement." (4)

Thus, Kalidasa’s play Sakuntalam made huge waves in Germany. In fact, so impressed was Goethe with Sakuntala that he decided to learn Sanskrit. Goethe also became acquainted with Kalidasa’s poem, Meghdootam (The Cloud Messenger). Kalidasa’s Vikramōrvaśīyam (Urvashi Won By Valour), as well as Malavikagnimitram, were all translated into German between 1827 and 1856, while Kumara Sambhavam (The Birth of the War God) was translated into German prose in 1913.

Goethe

It was when he attended a lecture by German Indologist Christian Lassen (1800-1876) expounding the Sakuntalam that another German Indologist Paul Jakob Deussen was fired up by Sanskrit and Hinduism.

Influence on Goethe

In 1791, as the Jacobins-the revolutionary democrats-began to extend the revolution against the wealthy in France, Georg Forster, the Mainz Jacobin, produced his German prose translation of Jones’ English version of Sakuntalam.

He sent a copy to Goethe, who was so enthusiastic about the drama that he sang its praises in two couplets:

If in one word of blooms of early and fruits of riper years,

Of excitement and enchantment I should tell,

Of fulfilment and content, of Heaven and Earth;

Then will l but say Sakuntala and have said all. *

Goethe had the lines printed in the Deutsche Monatsschrift (German Monthly Journal) the same year. Goethe wrote later: “Recalling the enthusiasm with which we Germans welcomed this translation of Sakuntala we can attribute the pleasure it gave us to the prose in which it came to us”. (5)

In Goethe’s correspondence and diaries, it is revealed that it held a special place in Goethe’s heart. (6)

French Scholar Antoine Leonard de Chezy presented Goethe with his French edition of Sakuntalam. In a letter of gratitude to Chezy, Goethe opened up himself before the European world: "The first time I came upon this inexhaustible work, [Sakuntala] it aroused such enthusiasm in me and so held me that I could not stop studying it. I even felt impelled to make the impossible attempt to bring it in some form to the German stage. These efforts were fruitless but they made me so thoroughly acquainted with this most valuable work, it represented such an "epoch in my life", I so absorbed it, that for thirty years I did not look at either the English or the German version. It is only now that I understand the enormous impression that work, made on me at an earlier age."

German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder, who was also living in Weimar at that time, set Goethe's couplet at the head of his article, On the Eastern Drama (1792). He said about the text, “I cannot find a product of the human mind more pleasant than this, a real blossom of the Orient, the first and most beautiful of its kind.” He also said that India was a holy land he yearned for.

He mentioned Sakuntalam again in 1798: “Since Sakuntala is unfortunately still the only example of her (India’s) perfected culture, one lingers with pleasure over it. We must have more Sakuntalas shortly, for they are the finest contributions to the cultural history of the peoples”. (7)

In 1803, Herder published Forster’s translation of the drama again and added a dedication to which he gave renewed his admiration for Kalidasa. Friedrich Schlegel came to know Forster’s first edition at the Leipzig Fair, and he wrote to his brother and poet August Schelegel about Sakuntala. He went later to Paris to learn Sanskrit and introduced the study of Indology into Germany.

Forster’s work had a very considerable influence on German middle-class society.

Friedrich Rueckert translated the drama directly from Sanskrit into German again in 1855, but it was only published in 1867, after his death.

The publication of Heinrich Heine’s posthumous works in 1869 brought to light that Heine had noticed something very special about Indian drama. In the chapter entitled Thoughts and Ideas he wrote: “Goethe made use of Sakuntalam at the beginning of Faust." (8) Goethe conceived the idea of the Vorspiel auf dem Theater (Prelude) in Faust from the prologue to Sakuntalam. All Sanskrit dramas will have a prayer in the beginning. In Sakuntala, an actor appears first on the stage and prays to Siva. Indian drama was part of a long religious ceremony filling several hours. Then the stage director comes on and informs the heroine that Kalidisa’s drama Sakuntalam is to be performed before an enlightened audience. The stage director then calls on the leading actress to sing a strophe in praise of the prevailing summer.

In Goethe’s prologue, the director comes out on the stage with the poet and the comedian and asks both for their help. He is embarrassed, for his audience is enlightened. The poet thinks only of posterity. The comedian will hear nothing of posterity and wants only to amuse contemporaries. The director demands an impressive spectacle. “Plunge into the fullness of life”, the comedian advises the poet; “everybody lives it, but few know it. And wherever you seize upon it, it is amusing.”

The poet speaks of “the urge towards truth and the joy of deceiving”. The three thus discourse on the deepest problems of art. Kalidasa followed the old Indian custom of composing a short prologue which introduces the audience to the poet and the title of the play. He used it to flatter his audience, composed of just a small group of gentlemen, nobles and Brahmans, higher officials, and perhaps a few wealthy merchants, who gathered on some festive occasion in a comparatively small theatre or the king’s court. The mass of the people was not even speaking chaste Sanskrit. They did not even understand the play. Thus, while the two prologues are different, the fact is that Kalidasa inspired Goethe to experiment with the alienation technique in drama, much much before the German dramatist Bertolt Brecht tried it.

Forster

Goethe also became acquainted with Kalidasa’s play Meghadootam, the Cloud Messenger, from H. H. Wilson's translation into English. In 1811 Wilson was appointed First secretary to the newly founded Asiatic Society in Bengal, and in 1813 he published the text and translation of the Meghadootam in Calcutta. In this poem, a spirit banned from its world sends a message through a cloud to his beloved in his homeland. Goethe wrote an epigram on this: (9)

What more pleasant could man wish?

Sakontala, Nala, these must one kiss;

And Megha-Duta, the cloud messenger,

Who would not send him to a soul sister!

In his “Notes to the West-East Divan,” Goethe recorded: “The first meeting with a work such as this is always an event in our lives”. (10)But he also criticised Wilson’s translation as too smooth. In 1826 Wilhelm von Humboldt praised this play for its wonderful description of the beginning of the rainy season when the first clouds come up from the South.

After C. Schuetz published the first prose translation of Sakuntalam in 1859 in Bielefeld, several others followed, some of them in verse.

In 1827 H H Wilson’s English translation of Kalidasa’s drama Urvasi Won by Valour (Vikramorvaseeyam) and a short summary of his third drama Malavika and Agnimitra became known in Europe. Malavika Agnimitram was translated into German by Berlin Indologist A. Weber in 1856. No less a man than prominent German Jew novelist and playwright Lion Feuchtwanger prepared it for the German stage in 1917 under the title, The King and the Dancer.

Vikramorvaseeyam was published in 1814 by Bollensen in a German translation. Rueckert had only included a few translated Verses in his summary of 1834. In 1833 Rueckert also translated a few verses from Kalidasa’s epic poem, The Line of Raghu (Raghu Vamsa)—the section containing Aja’s mourning for his dead wife Indumati. A free metric translation appeared in German done by A. F. Von Schack in 1890 and in prose by O. Walter in 1914.

Kalidasa’s sixth work, The Birth of the War God (Kumara Sambhavam), was translated by Griffith into English in 1879 and by O. Walter into German prose in 1913.

Herder

Thus, it took over a hundred years for all six of Kalidasa’s works to reach Germans in translations. In 1921, Indologist Alfred Hillebrandt (1853-1957) first published his work, Kalidasa: An Attempt at a Literary Appraisal, in Breslau. It was written in 1918, during the war. 

Studies on Kalidasa

Hillebrandt studied Sanskrit and comparative linguistics at the University of Breslau as a student of Adolf Friedrich Stenzler, then continued his studies at the University of Munich under Martin Haug. In 1883 he became an associate professor at Breslau, where in 1887 he attained a full professorship. 

His speciality was Vedic mythology. Varuna und Mitra, ein Beitrag Zur Exegese des Veda (Varuna and Mitra, a contribution to the exegesis of the Veda, 1877) was a prologue to his great work Vedische Mythologie (1891-1902), which was later translated into English and published as "Vedic mythology". Hillebrandt also wrote:

Das altindische Neu- und Vollmondsopfer (The ancient Indian New and Full Moon Sacrifices, 1880), Vedachrestomathie (Vedic chrestomathy, 1885), A section on religious antiquities in Georg Bühler's Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde (Outline of Indo-Aryan Philology and Archaeology, 1897), Alt-Indien, Kulturgeschichtliche Skizzen (Historical Culture Sketches of Ancient India, 1899), and translation of Vishakadatta's play Mudrarakshasam Part-I )

In the study on Kalidasa, he describes the times, works and art of the poet in 166 pages and comes to the conclusion that “Kalidasa can never approach the popularity of our ancient classics amongst us.” Indian Literature is “too far removed from our sensitivity to competing with Homer or with the poet of the Antigone, or to hold permanently the interest of educated persons in the way Shakespeare or Dante does …. We find too little manly strength, too little dramatic élan, too little inner struggle and revolt against fate… We demand deeper problems." (11)

But no one can accept Hillebrandt’s shoddy judgment. Hillebrandt wrote for a narrow circle of educated persons who were searching for a way out of Germany’s post-war misery in world literature. Germany cannot demand a “revolt against fate” etc. from an Indian classical poet. Kalidasa wrote for the peace-loving Indian people, who never wanted a tragedy in theatre, and Sage Bharata prohibited tragedies in Indian theatre in his treatise, Natya Shastra. Except for a couple of tragedies, Indian theatre is generally for happy endings. Germans have to try to understand Kalidasa in his own background-Goethe and Herder had found a great poet in Kalidasa, who loved his fellowmen and gave vent their passions, joys and sorrows vividly, and he had a critical attitude towards the weaknesses of the ruling elite of his time.

Kalidasa‘s world is strange to Europeans. But Germans, and Europe for that matter, need to understand this world. Once through the strange outer boundaries, they quickly find the general human content within. The European world will be poor if they remain confined to their own German or European culture.

The German naturalist, traveller and statesman Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859) wrote about Indian poetry and observed that Kalidasa is a masterly describer of the influence which Nature exercises upon the minds of lovers. This great poet flourished at the splendid court of Vikramaditya, and was, therefore, contemporary with Virgil and Horace. Tenderness in the expression of feeling, and richness of creative fancy, have assigned to him his lofty place among the poets of all nations. (12)

Hillebrandt

Georg Forster, the Jacobin, wrote in his introduction to his translation of Sakuntalam (1791): “Every country has its peculiarities, which influence the spiritual powers and the organisations of its people. If we compare these varying individualities and separate the general from the local, we shall arrive at the right understanding of mankind... Here an entirely new vista opens up before our feelings and our imagination, an extraordinarily beautiful individuality of the human character... It is necessary to set out clearly how the differences between Indian mythology, history and customs and the Greek, for instance, lend the artworks of that country an unusual form and appearance to us, but also to show how the significant thing about such works is not whether they consist of five or seven scenes, but that the most delicate feelings which the human heart can sense can be just as finely expressed on the Ganges by dark brown people as on the Rhine, the Tiber or the Ilissus by our white races”. (13)

Walter Ruben's Views

Acknowledging this view, Walter Ruben (1899-19820, a renowned German Marxist Indologist studied Kalidasa in detail and produced an important book in German, Kalidasa Die menschliche Bedeutung seiner Werke (Kalidasa and the Human Meaning of His Works -1957). Ruben belonged to the ranks of the great German Indologists such as Max Muller, Hermann Oldenberg, Hermann Jacobi and Heinrich Luders, who devoted their lives to building up intellectual relations between Germany and India. To Ruben, the studies of Indian history and languages were not an end in itself but an endeavour to find things from the point of view of continuity in India’s historical progress through various social formations. (14) Thus, he studied Kalidasa from a historical perspective.

He alludes to Kalidasa's death in Sri Lanka. King Kumaradasa of Ceylon wrote one day on the wall of a courtesan’s room the beginning- of a verse (he was himself a poet) and offered gold as a prize for anyone who completed the verse. Kalidasa did so, but the courtesan, greedy for gold, killed him, buried him and herself took credit for the poem. Of course, the King detected the deception, for he was familiar with Kalidasa’s art.

King Kumaradasa of Ceylon is said to have ascended the throne in 515, and this seems to fit in with Kalidasa’s time, even though dates are often contradictory. Presumably, Kalidasa was already well known in 473, for at that time a poet in Mandasor (which is near Kalidasa’s home) caused an inscription to be carved on the sun temple, some of whose verses are modelled on Kalidasa’s. Others assert that Kalidasa can only have composed one part of his “Line of Raghu” after 455. In this part, he praises the mythical King Raghu on account of a victory he won over the Huns. Th^ oldest victory of an Indian king over the Huns known to us, however, was that of King Skandagupta of the glorious Gupta dynasty, who ascended the throne in 455.

So, Kalidasa would have lived between Skanda Gupta’s time (approximately 455-467) and Kumaradasa’s (515) but was already being imitated in 473. Other Indologists think that Kalidasa had already lived under Samudragupta and (or) Chandragupta II (375-375 or 375— 413), that he praised the victories of these in his works, and also that these two kings had taken the additional name of Vikrama, at whose court Kalidasa is traditionally supposed to have lived.

If these chronological assumptions are correct, Kalidasa lived in the times of the famous Gupta kings, between 320 and 455 which is generally regarded as India’s golden age. In the times of the above-mentioned Chandragupta II — perhaps also in Kalidasa’s time — a Chinese Buddhist, Fa Hsien, lived for about ten years in the Kingdom of the Guptas and left an enthusiastic description of conditions there.

Ruben

Fa Hsien praised the government for its generosity for instance, that no passes were needed, that there was no death penalty and that rebels only suffered punishment by having the right hand chopped off, that the people lived pious Buddhist lives, ate no meat, drank no wine, that there were no wine shops and no butchers’ shops and so on. But he also mentions that Candalas, as “untouchables”, lived apart from “clean” persons and, when they passed along crowded roads, has to tap a warning of their approach with a stick.

Buddhism plays but a small role in Kalidasa’s work, and the ascetic life none at all. The young queen in “Malavika and Agnimitra” even comes on to the stage in the third act in a slightly drunken condition, and is pleased about it, without being criticised by anyone on that account. And at the beginning of Act II of “Sakuntala,” the comic Brahman complains that there is practically nothing but meat roasted on the spit at the King’s hunting excursion.

There can be no doubt that Buddhism was a living religion during this period in India, and that about that time the Buddhists developed a system of logic which is generally placed on a level with Aristotelian logic. Thus it can be assumed that the Buddhist pilgrim Fa Hsien saw only the Buddhist India of that period and Kalidasa, as Sivaite, only the Brahman India. It should, however, be noted that Fa Hsien mentions the sad fate of the “untouchables”. We may conclude from this that the glory of the Gupta court was to a great extent built on human misery.

The Gupta kings ruled over a mighty kingdom which included almost all of northern India, the broad Ganges basin between the Himalayas and the mountains of the Deccan, the northern area of which belongs to the West-East Narbada line. In northern India, the first States existed before 2000 BC. Here the primitive forests of the Ganges valley were almost all cut and ploughed in Kalidasa’s time. Here the Videha tribe, in the last stages of the decline of the gentile society, was mentioned for the last time in the history of northern India at the beginning of the Gupta period. Here, shortly after the invasion of Alexander of Macedon in 326 BC, there had a mighty kingdom which, however, existed only for four generations of its dynasty, the Maurya, similar to the Gupta kingdom itself, which began to decline in its fifth generation under Skandagupta.

Ujjain was at that time not only the centre of the Gupta power but also of Indian astronomy. Since about the third-century old Indian astronomy had received powerful impetus through Alexandrian scholars. Greek-Roman astronomical works were revised by Indians, and Ujjain was the Greenwich at that time for the Hindus, for, according to the Greek tradition through Alexandria, their meridian ran through this city. This scientific contact and development should be highly valued, and occasional references in Kalidasa’s works indicate the influence of Greek-Roman astronomy.

Mathematics is closely connected with astronomy in India. The famous mathematician and astronomer Aryabhatta lived and worked approximately in Kalidasa’s time. He is said to have been born in 476 and to have taught that the earth revolves around its own axis. 

Logic, as already indicated, was an essential subject of study at that time. Of the Brahmans, mention should be made of Vatsyayana in the Gupta period, who was the first to advance from evidence to conclusion, and of the Buddhists mention should be made of Dignaga, who made a systematic investigation of the possibilities of compulsive, probable and false conclusions. Grammar had already been brought to completion about five hundred years previously, and all aspects of the Sanscrit language had been interpreted in rules. At the latest half a millennium before Kalidasa’s time Sanscrit had ceased to be a living language and was spoken only by scholars and poets — who were of course also scholars.

Indians of Kalidasa’s time also made a study of love, which seems to us an unusual subject of scientific study. This was an investigation of the strategy and economics of the forces in the love conflict between the sexes. This “science”, as contained in the textbook of Vatsyayana available to us, had probably been set down sometime before Kalidasa’s day. Many believe that Kalidasa himself paid careful attention to the details of this teaching. In his epic, The Birth of the War God, during the wedding of the two gods, the man’s hand perspires from excitement; in his other epic, The Line of Raghu, the wife’s hand perspires during the wedding of Aja and Indumati. The second description follows the instructions on love, and it was therefore cleverly supposed that the latter work was written later and that the poet here wished to correct the “mistake” he had made in the earlier work. It is of course not certain that the poet actually was such a “scholar” or pedantic. Perhaps, on the contrary, he wished in his later epic to break away from his earlier slavish adherence to the tradition of love teachings. The order in which the two works were written is in fact not certain, and such arguments based on comparison are therefore not conclusive. 

Myths, sagas and semi-historical happenings must have been sung in epic form amongst the peoples in very early times; more than 500 years before Kalidasa Brahmans must have created the two great Indian epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, in this way. They modified them according to Vishnu traditions, but Siva also plays a considerable role in the Mahabharata. Later poets took most of their subject matter from these epics. Kalidasa took the subject of his Line of Raghu from the Ramayana and of his Sakuntala, Urvasi and The Birth of the War God from the Mahabharata.

So when Kalidasa, for example, in his Line of Raghu, deals with the ancestors and descendants of the mythical hero Rama, he did not take their order entirely from the Ramayana, the old epic of that hero, nor entirely from the Vishnu Purana, or from any other surviving Purana, but his material is certainly of Purana origin and so is the poet’s religion. There were certainly remains of the Vedic religion in his time. In the fifth act of Sakuntala, for instance, the king permits a delegation of forest hermits to be received by his teacher and palace priest Somarata. He then has them led into the hall of the Vedic fire cult, receives them there himself and finally acts on the advice of his palace priest. 

In Manu Smrithi VII, 58 it is further stated that the king should discuss all important political questions with a learned Brahman as the most worthy of his ministers. The kings in Kalidasa’s Malavika and Sakuntala do actually consult with a minister over certain questions — in Malavika even with a council of ministers, but not especially with a learned Brahman. On the other hand, Kalidasa’s kings have a Brahman as a comic figure near them, according to the custom of the Indian theatre.

Reuben points out that Rabindranath Tagore’s book Shipwreck (1906), is convincing evidence of Kalidasa’s living influence. Here Tagore himself refers to The Birth of the War God, and a comparison of the two works shows that Tagore was considerably influenced by the older work. Tagore had occupied himself since the early 1890s with Kalidasa’s verse and prose works, but especially with Sakuntala, Meghaduta and Kumarasambhava.

Tagore has, so to say, translated the old Siva fable into the modem form, using it as one thread running through his novel. In both Kalidasa’s Birth of the War God and Tagore’s Shipwreck we find a widower who practices yoga rites and retreats from this world, but Tagore’s figure works as a doctor. In 1886 — when Tagore was 25 — the first part of Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s commentary on the Bhagavad Gita was published in Bengal. Swami Vivekananda, taught in Bengal during the 1890s a new interpretation of the Gita, its yoga in action and its other forms of yoga.

Sakuntala, the Marvel 

Sakuntala became one of the most circulated Indian masterpieces- it was reprinted five times in England between 1790 and 1807 and it was retranslated and published many times throughout Europe. (15) The century after Jones translated it, Shakuntala appeared in forty-six translations in twelve different languages in Europe. (16)

Jones went on to translate another of Kalidasa’s poems, Ritusamhara, in 1792. He published it in Calcutta as The Seasons, A Descriptive Poem. (17) His English translation of Shakuntala, together with his Hymns to Narayana, were studied with fond devotion by Percy Bysshe Shelly(1792-1822), Robert Southey(1774-1843), Thomas Moore(1779-1857), Alfred Tennyson(1850-1892) and other nineteenth-century English poets. (18) Thanks to the influence of Jones’ Shakuntala and Hymns to Narayana, Shelly was able to overcome his atheistic and materialistic tendencies. (19)

Sophie, fiance of Novalis

In 1853, the Sanskrit-English lexicographer, Sir Monier Monier-Williams(1819-1899) came under the eternal charm of Sanskrit. In his Sakoontala or The Lost Ring: An Indian Drama, Translated into Prose and Verse from the Sanskrit of Kalidasa, Monier Williams presented the English public with a free translation of Shakuntala. It was published in 1855 followed by a second edition in 1876. In his Introduction he wrote:

"The most celebrated drama of the great Indian Shakespeare. The need felt by the British public for such a translation as I have here offered the most popular of the Indian dramas, in which the customs of the Hindus, their opinions, prejudices, and fables; their religious rites, daily occupations, and amusements are reflected as in a mirror."(20)

Monier Williams highly appreciated Kalidasa’s use of eleven different varieties of meter in the first thirty-four verses of the poem… He chose to employ in his translation both blank verse and rhyming stanzas. (But) He felt his own meters to be prosaic and was aware that he might not have expressed in language as musical as his(Kalidasa’s) own. (21) He humbly acknowledged, "I have done all in my power to avoid substituting a fictitious and meagre poem of my own and that œno metrical system in English could give any idea of the almost infinite resources(of Sanskrit)". (22)

During the 1790s, Oriental research in Jena, Weimar and Heidelberg and then at Bonn, Berlin and Tubingen was established. German translations and re-translations of Sakuntalam, along with the Laws of Manu and the Gita Govinda were studied in depth and ignited a fervid intensity in receptive German minds. (23)  Their contact with India’s original and universal religion through its literature gave them a sense of enlightenment.

_________________________________

1. Raymond Schwab, The Oriental Renaissance: Europe’s Discovery of India and the East, 1680-1880, New York, Oriental Renaissance, p 53

2. Dorothy Matilda Figueira, Translating the Orient, The Reception of Sakuntala in Nineteenth-Century Europe, Albany, 1991, p 26

3. Quoted in Jawaharlal Nehru, The Discovery of India, Calcutta 1946, p 175

4. Will Durant, The Story of Civilization, p 391-2

5. Walter Ruben, Kalidasa: The Human Meaning of His Works, trans. Joan Becker,
People's Publishing House, New Delhi, 1984, p 2

6. J.W. von Goethe, Werke, Weimar ed.(W.A), Weimar, 1887-1912, cited from Translating the Orient, 215,p 5

7. Ruben, p 1

8. Ibid, p 2

9. Ibid, p 5

10. Ibid, p 5

11. Ibid, p 4-5

12. Quoted in the Introduction, Monier Williams, Sakoontala: or the Lost Ring, Hertford, 1855, x

13. Ruben, p 7

14. Abanti Kumar Sanyal, A Tribute, Walter Ruben, Kalidasa: The Human Meaning of His Works, trans. Joan Becker, People's Publishing House, New Delhi, 1984

15. Schwab, The Oriental Renaissance: Europe’s Discovery of India and the East, 1680-1880, New York, p 51,53

16. Dorothy, Translating the Orient, p 12

17.Schwab, Oriental Renaissance, p 31

18. Marie E.D.Meester, Oriental Influence in the English Literature of the Early Nineteenth Century, p10

19. P.V. De Sola, Sir William Jones and English Literature, p 694

20. Moniere Williams, Sakoontala, p xi-xii

21. Ibid, p xiii

22. Ibid, p xii

23. Schwab, Oriental Renaissance, p 53

* Translation by E.B.Eastwick:

Wouldst thou the young year's blossoms and the fruits of its decline,

And all by which the soul is charmed, enraptured, feasted, fed,
Wouldst thou the earth and Heaven itself in one sole name combine?
I name thee, O Sakuntala! And all at once is said.

© Ramachandran 

SCHLEGEL: SANSKRIT IS THE MOTHER OF ALL LANGUAGES

Aryan Migration was From India

Nationalism, as an ethos, is never the brainchild of the West and it never had its origins in Europe. German Nationalism as it began through the work of the German Romantics in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, traced their intellectual and philosophical underpinnings to India.

German nationalism also grew as a reaction to political and cultural domination by the colonial powers of the West, Britain and France. While Indian nationalists looked towards their own religion, myth, and philosophy, the Germans depended on Indian philosophy and culture as the antidote to the pervasive materialism of the West’s philosophies. Indian nationalism, in turn, received much nourishment from German philosophers, like Schlegel.

Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1829), the German poet fascinated with India, was also a literary critic, philosopher, and philologist. His older brother, August Wilhelm Schlegel, was a leading figure of Jena Romanticism. Jena Romanticism is the first phase of Romanticism in German literature represented by the work of a group centred in Jena, a scholastic city in Germany, from about 1798 to 1804. The movement contributed to the development of German nationalism in modern philosophy.

The first to notice what became known as Grimm's law, Schlegel was a pioneer in Indo-European studies, comparative linguistics, and morphological typology, publishing in 1819 the first theory linking the Indo-Iranian and German languages under the Aryan group. (1)

Schlegel

Born into a Protestant family, Schlegel rejected religion as a young man in favour of atheism and individualism. He entered university to study law but instead focused on classical literature. As a writer and lecturer, he founded journals such as Athenaeum. In 1808, Schlegel returned to Christianity, with his wife, Dorothea Schlegel being baptized into the Catholic Church. This conversion ultimately led to his estrangement from family and old friends. He moved to Austria in 1809, where he became a diplomat and journalist in service of Klemens von Metternich, the Foreign Minister of the Austrian Empire.

Schlegel, as a promoter of the Romantic movement, inspired English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Polish poets Adam Mickiewicz and Kazimierz Brodziński.

He was born in Hanover, where his father, Johann Adolf Schlegel, was the pastor at the Lutheran Market Church. He studied law at Göttingen and Leipzig for two years, where he met with German playwright Friedrich Schiller. In 1793 he chose literary work, as his career. In 1796 he moved to Jena, where his brother August Wilhelm lived, and there he collaborated with Novalis, Ludwig Tieck, Johann Fichte, and Caroline Schelling, who married August Wilhelm. Novalis and Schlegel had a famous conversation about German idealism. In 1797 he quarrelled with Schiller, who did not like his polemic work. (2)

Schlegel published Die Griechen und Römer (The Greeks and Romans), which was followed in 1798 by Geschichte der Poesie der Griechen und Römer (History of the Poesy of the Greeks and Romans). Then he turned to Dante, Goethe, and Shakespeare. In Jena, he and his brother founded the journal Athenaeum, contributing fragments, aphorisms, and essays in which the principles of the Romantic school were elaborated. They are now generally recognized as the most profound expressions of the subjective idealism of the early Romanticists. (3)

Schlegel decided to move to Berlin after a controversy involving his affair with Dorothea, a Jew, who was married to merchant and banker, Simon Weit. Dorothea Mendelssohn, the eldest daughter of philosopher Moses Mendelssohn, was an author and editor whose work received little recognition during her lifetime. While married, she became active in Berlin’s dynamic salon subculture, and in 1794 she began calling herself Dorothea rather than her birth name of Brendel.

In 1799 she fell in love with Schlegel and divorced Veit that same year. Her relationship with Schelegel alienated Dorothea from her family; the couple left Berlin and travelled to Jena, Paris, and Cologne before settling in Vienna, where they married and converted to Catholicism in 1808. The two decades spent in Vienna were Dorothea’s happiest. Under Schlegel’s name, Dorothea published her only novel Florentin in 1799, and her edited volumes of medieval French texts in 1802.

In Berlin, Schlegel lived with philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher and met authors Henriette Herz, Rahel Varnhagen, and also Dorothea Veit. (4) In 1799 he published Lucinde, which was seen as an account of his affair with Dorothea, causing a scandal in German literary circles. The unfinished novel attempted to apply the Romantic demand for complete individual freedom to practical ethics. (5) Lucinde, which extolled the union of sensual and spiritual love as an allegory of the divine cosmic Eros, contributed to the failure of his academic career in Jena (6) where he completed his studies in 1801 and lectured on transcendental philosophy. In September 1800, he met four times with Goethe, who would later stage his tragedy Alarcos (1802) in Weimar, which was a failure.

In June 1802 he arrived in Paris, where he lived in the house formerly owned by French philosopher Baron d'Holbach and joined a circle including painter Heinrich Christoph Kolbe. He lectured on philosophy in private courses for Sulpiz Boisserée. Under the tutelage of Antoine-Léonard de Chézy and linguist Alexander Hamilton, he continued to study Sanskrit and Persian.

First Sanskrit Professor in France

Antoine-Léonard de Chézy (1773 – 1832) was a French orientalist and one of the first European scholars of Sanskrit. His father, Antoine de Chézy (1718–1798), was an engineer who finally became director of the École des Ponts et Chaussées. The son was intended for his father's profession, but in 1799 he obtained a post in the oriental manuscripts department of the national library. In about 1803, he began studying Sanskrit, and although he possessed no grammar or dictionary, he succeeded in acquiring sufficient knowledge of the language to be able to compose poetry in it.

In Paris sometime between 1800 and 1805, Schlegel's wife Dorothea introduced him to the Wilhelmine Christiane von Klencke, called Hermina or Hermine, who, extremely unusually for the time, was a very young divorcée who had come to Paris to be a correspondent for German newspapers. In 1805 they married and Helmina subsequently gave birth to two sons: the author Wilhelm Theodor von Chézy (1806–1865) and Max von Chézy (1808–1846), who became a painter.

Chezy

He was the first professor of Sanskrit appointed in the Collège de France (1815), where his pupils included Alexandre Langlois, Auguste-Louis-Armand Loiseleur-Deslongchamps and especially Eugène Burnouf, who would become his successor at the Collège on his death in 1832.

He is the author of numerous editions and translations of Oriental works. La Mort de Yadjnadatta (Paris, 1814, and with Sanskrit text, 1826) is a translation of a well-known episode of the Ramayana, describing the slaying of a hermit by King Dasaratha. A translation of another episode, the fight of Lakshmana with the giant Atikaya appeared in 1818. Chézy's most notable work, however, was the publication in 1820 of Kalidasa's famous drama, Abhinjana Sakuntala under the title La reconnaissance de Sacountala. This was the first time that the Sanskrit text of this masterpiece was printed. Other works of his are an analysis of the Meghaduta (1817), Anthologie érotique d'Amarou, a translation of Sankaracharya's Amarusataka, which appeared under the pseudonym of Apudy in 1831, and La théorie du Sloka (1829), a disquisition on Sanskrit metre.

First European Professor of Sanskrit

Schlegel's other tutor Alexander Hamilton (1762–1824) was a British linguist who was one of the first Europeans to study the Sanskrit language. He taught the language to most of the earliest European scholars of Indo-European linguistics. He became the first professor of Sanskrit in Europe. Hamilton seems to have been born in India, but Scotland is not impossible. He was a first cousin of his namesake, American statesman Alexander Hamilton. He became a lieutenant in the navy of the East India Company and arrived in India in 1783. While stationed in India he joined the Asiatic Society of Bengal founded by Sir William Jones and Sir Charles Wilkins. He also married a Bengali woman.

After the death of Jones in India, Wilkins and Hamilton were the only Europeans who had studied Sanskrit. Both returned to Europe around 1797. Wilkins remained in England but Hamilton went to France after the Treaty of Amiens (1802) to collate Sanskrit manuscripts held at the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. He completed the cataloguing in 1813.

After war broke out between Britain and France in 1803 Hamilton was interned as an enemy alien, but was released to carry on his research at the insistence of the French scholar Constantine Volney. Hamilton taught Sanskrit to Volney and others, including Schlegel and Jean-Louis Burnouf, the father of Eugene Burnouf. Hamilton spend most of his time compiling a catalogue of Indian manuscripts in the library which was published in 1807. Hamilton lived in Schlegel's house, the former house of Baron d'Holbach in Rue de Clichy, together with Sulpiz Boisserée and his brother.

In 1806 he was appointed at Hertford College, becoming the first Sanskrit professor in Europe. He became a professor of "Sanscrit and Hindoo literature" at Haileybury College. He assisted Wilkins with his revisions to his translation of the Hitopadesha. Following the end of the Napoleonic wars many German scholars came to study with him, notably Franz Bopp and August Wilhelm Schlegel.

Meanwhile, Karl Wilhelm Schlegel edited the journal Europa (1803), where he published essays about Gothic architecture and the Old Masters. In April 1804 he married Dorothea in the Swedish embassy in Paris after she had undergone the requisite conversion from Judaism to Protestantism. In 1806 he and his wife went to visit Aubergenville, where his brother lived with Madame de Staël. 

In 1808, he published the epic, Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier (On the Language and Wisdom of India). 

In 1808, he and his wife joined the Catholic Church in the Cologne Cathedral. From this time on, he became more and more opposed to the principles of political and religious liberalism. He went to Vienna and in 1809 was appointed imperial court secretary at the military headquarters, editing the army newspaper and issuing fiery proclamations against Napoleon. He accompanied Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen to war and was stationed in Pest during the War of the Fifth Coalition. Here he studied the Hungarian language. Meanwhile, he published his collected Geschichte (Histories) (1809) and two series of lectures, Über die neuere Geschichte (On Recent History) (1811) and Geschichte der alten und neuen Literatur (On Old and New Literature) (1815).

Following the Congress of Vienna (1815), he was a councillor of legation in the Austrian embassy at the Frankfurt Diet, but in 1818 he returned to Vienna. In 1819 he and Clemens Brentano made a trip to Rome, in the company of Metternich and Gentz. There he met with his wife and her sons. In 1820 he started a conservative Catholic magazine, Concordia (1820–1823), but was criticized by Metternich and by his brother August Wilhelm, then professor of Indology in Bonn and busy publishing the Bhagavad Gita. Schlegel began the issue of his Sämtliche Werke (Collected Works). He also delivered lectures, which were republished in his Philosophie des Lebens (Philosophy of Life-1828) and in his Philosophie der Geschichte (Philosophy of History-1829).

Schlegel died in 1829, at the age of 56. Friedrich Schlegel's wife, Dorothea had two sons by her first marriage, Johannes and Philipp Veit, who became eminent Catholic painters.

Schlegel's India

Schlegel studied Sanskrit for over forty years, under the tutelage of Antoine-Léonard de Chézy and Alexander Hamilton – the earliest European scholars of Sanskrit. A pioneer of comparative linguistics, he pointed out the grammatical and syntactical similarities between Sanskrit and the Indo-European languages. He hypothesised Sanskrit was the ancient progenitor of this family of languages. In the influential book, Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier (On the Language and Wisdom of India-1808), where he first argued that a people from India (the prototypical “Aryans”) had founded the ancient European civilisations.

Here he advanced his ideas about religion and importantly argued that people from India were the founders of the first European civilizations. Schlegel compared Sanskrit with Latin, Greek, Persian and German, noting many similarities in vocabulary and grammar. The assertion of the common features of these languages is now generally accepted, albeit with significant revisions. The pseudo-secularists are hell-bent on discrediting the Out-of-India model.

Schlegel found Sanskrit is the mother language. Based on it and migrations out of India, Schlegel explained the preponderance of disparate European cultures and languages as offshoots of a unified Aryan culture. In 1819, he published the first theory linking the Indo-Iranian and German languages under the Aryan group. He theorised that the word “Arya” had been what the Indo-Europeans called themselves, meaning, “the honourable people”.

Parallel to it, Indian nationalists were also formulating similar theories about the Indian origins of the Aryans based on Hindu religious texts. So, Schlegel’s work carried weight in India. Gandhi also took note of it.

Schlegel’s argument for “Hindustan holding [sic] the first rank in time” in terms of philosophy and metaphysics, appears in Gandhi’s Hind Swaraj, published in 1909. Similarly, Bal Gangadhar Tilak put forward the theory of the Aryan homeland in India and the Aryans’ migration from India. The works of Aurobindo Ghosh and Dayanand Saraswati also popularised Schlegel’s version of the Aryans.

Gandhi's chief concern in Hind Swaraj is that India was slowly but surely accepting the 'modern civilisation' imposed on it by the British rulers. This included the so-called peace which in reality was 'nominal' as it was based on the strength of bayonets and in the process had made Indians "emasculated and cowardly". (7) The prevalent belief that Hindus and Muslims were sworn enemies and were separate nationalities was a 'construction' of the British for their own selfish purposes. About the British historical perspective on India, he writes, "they have (the) habit of writing history, they pretend to study the manners and customs of all peoples. . . and hypnotize us into believing them. We in our ignorance then fall at their feet." (8) English education in his opinion had 'enslaved' India and driven a wedge between different sections of people. (9)

Schlegel’s works are not only relevant to the early history of Indian nationalism, but to modern India too. Aryan migration from India westwards is known contemporarily as “Indigenous Aryanism.” It is still a contentious point of debate between the scholars of Hindutva and the academic historians of the ancient history of India. Indigenous Aryanism, the “Out of India” theory, is contrasted with the general “Indo-Aryan Migration theory”, which considers the Pontic steppe to be the area of origin of the Indo-European languages.

Hindutva scholars, based on evidence from Puranic versions of history, and interpretations of the, reject the migration theory in favour of an interpretation similar to Schlegel. Sanskrit is the mother of all Indo-European languages, and Indo-Iranian Aryans are the forefathers of their Western counterparts. An unbroken Vedic culture continues from the Harappan civilisation to the present and thus exists a pan-Indian history.

The Indo-Aryan migration model was previously termed the Indo-Aryan invasion model. Hindutva scholars point out that the Indo-Aryan migration models are part of the colonial scholarship manufactured to show the dominance of the white races over their darker-skinned Indians.

Schlegel's theory is in tune with the notion of an undisturbed ancient Hindu identity for Indians. Based on it, Hindus can be seen as the original inhibitors of Aryavartha, the original India, which include India's neighbours. A unified Vedic culture existed and still exists as a pan-Indian cultural ethos from the Indus Valley Civilisation period. This idea is reflected in the philosophy of people like M S Golwalkar and Veer Savarkar.

____________________

1. Watkins, Calvert (2000), "Aryan", American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.), New York: Houghton Mifflin.

2. Ernst Behler, German Romantic Literary Theory, 1993, p. 36.

3.Böhme, Traugott (1920). "Schlegel, Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von". In Rines, George Edwin (ed.). Encyclopedia Americana.

4.Speight , Allen (2007). "Friedrich Schlegel". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

5. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Schlegel, Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

6.Böhme, Traugott (1920). "Schlegel, Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von" . In Rines, George Edwin (ed.). Encyclopedia Americana.

7. Gandhi, Hind Swaraj, p. 38.

8. Ibid, p. 46.

9. Ibid, pp. 78-79.

© Ramachandran 

ROTH PREPARES THE FIRST SANSKRIT GRAMMAR

Eurocentrism Is a Fad

According to folklore, Kalidasa, though handsome, was a complete dunce. When some wise men saw him sitting on the wrong end of the branch of a tree while trying to see it off, they conspired that he was the perfect match to teach the haughty princess Vidyottama a lesson. She took great pride in her intellect and vowed she would only marry someone who could defeat her in Shastrartha (scholastic debate). 

King Vikramaditya statue at Ujjain

Kalidasa was presented as a learned man who had undertaken a maun vrata (vow of silence) and would communicate only using sign language. During their exchange, the princess showed him one finger (to mean shakti is one). He thought she meant to poke his eye out, so he showed her two fingers to indicate he would poke both her eyes out. The wise men interpreted his response to mean shakti is the reflection of duality. Vidyottama then showed him her outstretched palm, to indicate the world is made of five elements. He thought she was going to slap him, and responded by showing his fist. She accepted it as a response that the five elements constitute the whole body.

The two were married, but soon after, the princess realized the truth and threw him out. Distraught, he came to the temple of Kali in Ujjain and offered to cut off his infernal tongue as a sacrifice. The goddess was appeased and granted him profound wisdom, and he took on the name Kalidasa (servant of Kali). When he returned home, Vidyottama asked in chaste Sanskrit, “Asti kashchit vaag-vishesha” (Do you have anything special to say?). In response, Kalidasa is said to have used her words to write three poems of exceptional literary beauty. He began his epic poem Kumarasambhavam with the words “asti-uttarasyaam dishi”. The lyrical poem Meghdootam began with“kashchit-kaantaa” and “vaag arthaaviva” were the opening words of Raghuvamsam.

More than twenty centuries later, the epic poet of Germany, Goethe was fascinated by Kalidasa. While Sanskrit and the Indian civilization conquered Europe culturally, two venomous ideologies made their destructive facade visible- Eurocentrism and Marxism. The religious colonizing zeal of Europe hasn't disappeared forever.

On 3 June 2022, In an interactive session at a conference in the Slovakian capital Bratislava, Indian external affairs minister S Jaishankar said: "Europe has to grow out of the mindset that its problems are the world’s problems but the world’s problems are not Europe’s problems."

The strong comments by Jaishankar came amid persistent efforts by the European countries to convince India to take a tough position on the Russian invasion of Ukraine with the argument that New Delhi may face a similar challenge from China in the future.

“In terms of the connection you are making, we have a difficult relationship with China and we are perfectly capable of managing it. If I get global understanding and support, obviously it is of help to me,” Jaishankar said.

“But this idea that I do a transaction – I come in one conflict because it will help me in conflict two. That’s not how the world works. A lot of our problems in China have nothing to do with Ukraine and have nothing to do with Russia. They are predated,” he said.

Jaishankar was asked why he thinks anyone will help New Delhi in case of a problem with China after it did not help others for Ukraine.

“Somewhere Europe has to grow out of the mindset that Europe’s problems are the world’s problems but the world’s problems are not Europe’s problems. That if it is you, it’s yours, if it is me it is ours. I see reflections of that,” he said.

“There is a linkage today which is being made. A linkage between China and India and what’s happening in Ukraine. China and India happened way before anything happened in Ukraine. The Chinese do not need a precedent somewhere else on how to engage us or not engage us or be difficult with us or not be difficult with us,” he said.

Jaishankar said Europe was also silent on many developments in Asia.

“If I were to take Europe collectively which has been singularly silent on many things which were happening, for example in Asia, you could ask why would anybody in Asia trust Europe on anything at all,” he said.

It was a bold attack on Eurocentrism. Eurocentrism has been defined as an attitude, conceptual apparatus, or set of empirical beliefs that frame Europe as the primary engine and architect of world history, the bearer of universal values and reason, and the pinnacle and therefore model of progress and development. (1)

In Eurocentric narratives, the superiority of Europe is evident in its economic and political systems and the quality of life enjoyed by its societies. But for Indians, Eurocentrism is more than banal ethnocentric prejudice, as it is intimately tied to and constituted in the violence and asymmetry of colonial and imperial encounters. Eurocentrism is what makes this diabolism not only possible but also acceptable or justifiable.

Significant critiques of Eurocentrism emerged in the context of post-World War II shifts in geopolitical power, including anticolonial and anti-imperial movements. Even so, institutional practices that privilege Eurocentric epistemologies continue to haunt the third world in disturbing ways. Thus, India is reinventing itself, realizing the heinous designs Europe had unleashed on India. At the same time, there were several Indologists in Europe, who had realized that India is the cradle of civilization.

Max Muller and Ralph Griffith translated the Vedas. Monier Williams wrote Hinduism and its Sources. Maurice Bloomfield prepared the monumental Vedic Dictionary, A Vedic Concordance. Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote the poem, Brahma. German scholars translated the Upanishads. The great German poet Friedrich Ruckert (1788-1866) wrote a six-volume monumental maha kavya, Brahma Jnanam. (Die Weisheit des Brahmanen, The Wisdom of the Brahmins). Rückert, who had been an expert on Arabic and Persian, also made a name for himself with the translation of the "Mahabharata" legends.

Goethe was fascinated by Kalidasa's Abhijñānaśākuntalam.

The German poet, philosopher and Indologist, Friedrich Von Schlegel (1772-1829), published an epoch-making book in 1808, On the Language and Wisdom of India. (Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier). In the book, he argued that people originating from India were the founders of the first European civilizations. He pointed out, “India is superior in everything — intellectually, religiously, even Greek heritage seems pale in comparison.” In 1818 he became the first professor of Indology at Bonn University.

German philosopher and literary critic Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803) remarked: “‘Mankind’s origins can be traced to India where the human mind got the first shapes of wisdom and virtue.”

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860), the great German philosopher was amazed by the wisdom of the Vedas and reflected: “In the whole world there is no study so beneficial and as elevating as that of the Upanishads. It has been the solace of my life and will be the solace of my death. They are the product of the highest wisdom. Vedas are the most rewarding and the most elevating book which can be possible in the world.”

Heinrich Heine (1797-1856), German Romantic poet, essayist and journalist, said: “The Portuguese, Dutch and the English have been for a long time, year after year, shipping home the treasures of India in their big vessels. We Germans have all along been left to watch it. Germany would do likewise but hers would be treasures of spiritual knowledge.”

August Wilhelm Schlegel, professor of Sanskrit in Continental Europe produced a Latin translation of the Bhagavad Gita in 1823. It was the first Sanskrit book printed in Europe. This was the first of a self-financed, self-published series known as ‘The Indian Library’, which also included translations of the Ramayana and the Hitopadesha.

Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835), a Prussian philosopher and diplomat, on reading the Bhagavad Gita, said, “I read the poem for the first time today. I felt a sense of overwhelming gratitude to God for having let me be acquainted with this work. It must be the most sublime thing to be found in the world.”

German Indologist and Philosopher Paul Jakob Deussen (1845-1919) was strongly influenced by Arthur Schopenhauer. He was a friend of Friedrich Nietzsche and Swami Vivekananda, and even gave himself a Sanskrit name, Deva-Sena, as a mark of his admiration for Hinduism.

Werner Heisenberg (1901- 1976), Nobel Prize winner and co-founder of quantum physics, found revelations in Indian philosophy, and once articulated that “after the conversations about Indian philosophy, some of the ideas of quantum physics that had seemed crazy suddenly made much more sense”.

But It was the British, who formally created the subject of Indology at the end of the 18th Century when the English scientist William Jones (1746-1794) founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal in Kolkata in 1784. But before that, there was a market for Sanskrit, albeit a small one.

The real beginnings of Sanskrit studies did not really kick off in Germany until the beginning of the 19th century – making Germany the first European country after the British to introduce the subject at universities, where scholars devoted themselves to translating antique religious texts and poetry.

Some of Germany's first Sanskrit scholars were famous personalities, like Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835). Humboldt corresponded with the philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, with whom he discussed the Bhagavad Gita.

Some works by German philosophers and poets such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Arthur Schopenhauer and Friedrich Nietzsche also mention Sanskrit works and are thus proof of the attraction Sanskrit had in Europe.

Academic pursuits of the Germans were focused on the Indian traditional knowledge systems: Metaphysics, Astronomy, Mathematics, Ayurveda, Theosophy, Literature, and Folk traditions. German scholars and missionaries promoted the Indian language with translations and transliterations. The role of the Basel mission in promoting Indian languages like Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil, was tremendous.

The contribution of German missionaries to the study of Indian languages, customs, cultural identities and religious practices was part of a European agenda and unsurpassed in the thorough methodology and meticulous documentation. Even though the inadvertent religious bias was always present in their scholastic background, the academic identity they created for Indian languages was highly pedagogic. The German writers had no colonial interest in exploring classical Indian Sanskrit, and their interest in Indian classical literature was purely academic, though it was not the case with missionaries.

The Jesuit agenda

The very first Jesuit mission with the aim of Christianizing India started with the arrival of Francis Xavier (1506–52) in 1542. The Portuguese were the patrons of the Jesuit missions and they called their historiographies on India Estado da Índia. As a new religious order specifically available for overseas missions by a special vow to the pope, the Jesuits were aware of the need to produce and show the results of their engagement and to publish them, as the use of the printing press was gaining ground, for their European sponsors and benefactors.

The absence of literature on Indian civilization in European languages stimulated the production of historiography. These histories were meant to be read widely to edify European audiences and entice new recruits and provide the template for missionary action. They were both apologetic and factual, since each detail, whether about missionary successes, obstacles, or martyrdoms, was seen as a step forward to the ultimate triumph. This teleological colouring of the historiographical account was also closely interwoven with Catholic providentialism.

The earliest publications of missionary letters from India, such as the famous Copie d’une lettre missive envoyée des Indes (Paris, 1545) by Francis Xavier, can be taken as the first Jesuit historiographical effort at printing primary sources. (2)
Letters by the missionaries in India, working exclusively under the Portuguese Padroado (the royal patronage of the missions), appeared in print in the sixteenth century, often simultaneously in Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, German, French, and Latin. What the Portuguese publications called simply Cartas (Letters), written mostly in Portuguese by the Jesuit missionaries with first-hand knowledge, were renamed histories when translated. The New Historical Reports (Nova relatio historica or Newe Historische Relation) or New Indian Relations (Indische Newe Relation) signal a transitional genre between letters (a witness report) and history. The printing press was therefore accelerating the process of making recent present events into fixed past, controlled by the Jesuit imprimatur. (3)

An unpublished history by a missionary in India is História do Malavar (History of Malabar) by Diogo Gonçalves (d.1640). The manuscript that Joseph Wicki dated to around 1615 is not simply a history of the Society of Jesus but a combination of geography and an ethnography of Kerala. (4) It seems to have been written for the Portuguese colonial administration in order to provide strategic advice for a possible conquest of or at least an attack on one of the rich temples. It was also directed at the Jesuit missionaries, offering them information and instructions on how to respond to Indian idolatry and customs.

Jesuit Indian early modern historiography reached its apogee in Daniello Bartoli’s (1608–85) multivolume oeuvre on the History of the Society of Jesus, published in Rome in Italian and Latin between 1650 and 1673 and republished many times over in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. His Asian history, separate from those of Japan and China, included Xavier’s life and travel all the way to the mission at the Mughal court by Rodolfo Acquaviva (1550–83) and his martyrdom in Salcette in 1583. The Jesuits in France were bracing for a fight against articulate enemies at home, some of whom came straight from the Jesuit colleges and who were eventually associated with the Enlightenment. (5)

To win over the French literary public, the missionaries in India produced erudite and descriptive texts and letters in which distant peoples and their histories were variously portrayed as congealed in ancient (European) times or as people who “forgot” (or were tricked into forgetting) their own "Christian origins". Jesuit speculations about connections between Brahmins and Jews and many other conjectures were incorporated into some of the most important Enlightenment projects such as Bernard and Picard’s, Cérémonies et coutumes. (6)

As the opposition to the Society of Jesus grew, everything the Jesuits wrote from the missions was used against them in Protestant historiography. From the early years of the eighteenth century, a rival Christian mission in India, that of the German Pietists from Halle in Tranquebar (Tharangambadi in Mayiladuthurai district of Tamil Nadu), a Danish enclave on the Coromandel Coast, started producing their own missionary historiography. Their letters and reports were published from 1708 onwards as Hallesche Berichte and some of them were translated into English and published in Propagation of the Gospel in the East that started appearing in 1709 by the Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge and in various other histories. (7)

The acerbic tongue among the Protestant historians of the early eighteenth century was formerly been Catholic, Mathurin Veyssière de la Croze (1661–1739). He wrote Histoire du christianisme des Indes, a history in which Jesuits, Portuguese and French, figure very prominently side by side with other Portuguese ecclesiastical actors. Croze established a very long history of Christianity in India, preserved by the St. Thomas Christians in Kerala, while he portrayed the Jesuits and the Portuguese as those who came to pervert and corrupt the pristine message and this ancient community that had originally resembled a Protestant sect.

Only Jesuit authors wrote about their own history, although in the seventeenth century, some Jesuits extended their contributions to other literary, scholarly, and historiographical projects. As Jesuit and European interest in other people’s pasts grew, although diachrony was often collapsed into ethnography, the Society of Jesus itself became increasingly subject to negative criticism. The apogee of negative assessments occurred in the years leading to and after the suppression of the order. The Jesuit historiography of the Indian Jesuit missions resumed after the restoration of the Society of Jesus and the first missionaries, who all came from France, first to Bengal (1834) and then to Tamil Nadu (1837), and who had to deal with the changed political situation in India, in France, and within the Catholic Church.

However, Jesuits’ obsessive control of their own history was compromised by other historical actors in India in the eighteenth century, in particular by information-hungry British administrators-cum-orientalists. The life of the Jesuit Costanzo Giuseppe Beschi (1680–1747) had been written in Tamil before being translated into English and published in 1840. The British were not interested as much in Beschi’s life as in his work since he was recognized by the budding British orientalists as having been an extraordinary Tamil scholar, grammarian, and poet.

The Jesuit missionary to South India, Roberto de Nobili (1577-1656) claimed that he was a Brahmin, with an agenda to convert the brahmins. He came to Cochin and went to Madurai where he behaved like a Brahmin. He wore a white dothi, sandals and a three-stringed thread across his chest. He didn't call the thread poonool, but he said it represented the holy trinity. He encouraged shaving the head and the crest of hair on the head, kudummai.

Nobili

Nobili was an Italian Jesuit who believed local customs are not contrary to Christianity. Born in Tuscany, he came to Goa in 1605. After a short stay in Cochin, he reached Madurai in November. Claiming Brahmin parentage, he approached Brahmins. From a teacher, Shivadharma, he learned Sanskrit, Tamil and Telugu. He applied Tamil equivalents to specific Christian terms: Kovil for Church, Arul/prasadam for Grace, Guru for the priest, Vedam for Bible and poosai for mass. Fellow Jesuit and the Arch Bishop of Goa, Cristovao de Sa e Lisboa didn't like his methods and there was a huge controversy. Pope Gregory XV stepped in and settled it-dothi, sandals and the thread got the nod of approval. Nobili died in Mylapore. Though his mission was not a success, he was later acclaimed by Max Muller, as the "first European Sanskrit scholar, a man who could quote from Manu, from the Puranas, and even from the works such as the Apastamba-sutras, which are known even at present to only a few Sanskrit scholars." There is no basis for Muller's assertion, though. It is claimed that he wrote many Sanskrit books, which perished in a fire that burned down his little hermitage when the soldiers came to seize him in 1640. He was imprisoned for two years.

Based on Nobili's Apology (1615), Dr W Caland asserts that Nobili knew the "Sanskrit in Grantha, not in Devanagari characters." (8)

Roth Writes a Sanskrit Grammar book

The first German scholar of Sanskrit was the Jesuit missionary Heinrich Roth (1620-1668). He became fluent during his stay in India. Roth became the first to write a grammar on the language, which, according to history, was never published, as Roth never managed to find the time to oversee the printing process.

Roth won a name in the west as the author of the first Sanskrit Grammar ever written in a European language. He is also known to have done preparatory work for a Sanskrit-Latin Dictionary based upon Veni Datta's Pancha Tattva Prakasa (CE 1664) and to have drawn up a preliminary system of reproducing Hindi words in Roma characters.

He was born in Germany, but died in Agra in India; also known as Henricus Rodius or Henrique Roa, (9) he was a missionary. Having been born in Dillingen and raised in Augsburg, where his father Konrad Roth (died 1637) worked as a lawyer for the Prince-Bishopric, from 1635 to 1639. His mother Maria Susanna was a homemaker.

Roth studied Rhetoric and Humanities at the University of Dillingen and Philosophy at the Jesuit college in Innsbruck. In 1639, he became a Jesuit in Landsberg, and from 1641 to 1645 taught at the grammar schools of Munich, and Ingolstadt, where he served as a master in the lower grades. After that, he returned to Dillingen to start theological studies, which he completed in Ingolstadt in 1649. The same year, he was ordained priest in Eichstätt, in minor orders by the Suffragan Bishop of Freising, Johann Fiernhamer in 1642 and in holy orders by the Prince Bishop of Eichstatt, Marquard II Schenk von Castell, in 1649.

On behalf of Francesco Piccolomini, in 1649 Roth was assigned to the so-called Ethiopian mission to India. (10) Travelling by the land route via Smyrna (1650) and Isfahan, he arrived in Goa by 1652. He worked first on the Island of Salsette off Goa, where from time to time he acted as a Portuguese interpreter. He was then sent to an embassy by one of the native princes, and via Uttarakhand finally reached the Mughal Empire and its residence in Agra in 1654. Acting as rector of the Jesuit residence in Agra since 1659, he was involved in the persecution under Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.

Next to learning Persian, Kannada and Hindi, Roth at Agra for several years also acquired a profound knowledge of classical Sanskrit grammar and literature from local pandits. The French explorer and philosopher Francois Bernier, who got acquainted with Roth in these years, got to appreciate him as one versed in expert knowledge of the culture and philosophy of religions in India. (11)

In 1662, joined by fellow Jesuit Johann Grueber, who was on his way back from China, Roth revisited Europe by the land route via Kabul and arrived in Rome in February 1664. Athanasius Kircher, in his monumental work China Illustrata, published their itinerary, Roth’s description of the Sanskrit alphabet, and some short excerpts of Roth’s other works. (12) Travelling north to Germany, Roth held some public lectures in Neuburg on the history and culture of the Mughal Empire, excerpts of which subsequently appeared in print. (13) In Vienna, Roth succeeded in gaining financial support from emperor Leopold I to have his Sanskrit grammar – the first such work ever compiled by a European, which Roth had completed in Agra by 1660 (14) – appear in print, but the project was stopped by the Jesuit Superior General Giovanni Paolo Oliva.

Ordered by Oliva to set up a Jesuit mission in Nepal, Roth travelled back via Constantinople and Surat, (15) returning to Agra by 1666, where he died in 1668 before he could embark on the Nepalese mission. His gravesite is still visible at the Padri Santos chapel in Lashkarpur, a suburb of Agra.

Heinrich Roth's Sanskrit grammar, which he had completed by 1660 in the Latin language under the title Grammatica Linguae Sanscretanae Brachmanum Indiae Orientalis (the manuscript of which is preserved today at the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale in Rome) and that was augmented by preliminary studies for a complete Sanskrit-Latin dictionary, made him a pioneering scholar in modern Sanskrit studies in Europe. Further works include studies on Hindi and Devanagari alphabets, on Vedanta and on Vishnu. Also, a total of 35 letters, written by Roth from India and during his travel back to Europe, survive at the Royal Library of Belgium in Brussels.

                                        Gadhkalika Mandir where Kalidasa received the blessings of Kali

Apart from Roth, several other European scholars contributed to the symbiosis. They include,

Edward Roemer (1805- 1866): was a student of philosophy who learnt Sanskrit and entered the services of East India Company and came to Calcutta in 1839. By 1842 he became the librarian of the Asiatic Society of Bengal and secretary of the linguistic Department of Bengal in 1847. He became the editor of Bibliotheca Indica, a publication of the Asiatic society. He published Ten Upanishads by 1853 with original transliterations.

Hermann Brockhaus (1806 - 1877): His father had a printing house in Leipzig. He studied oriental languages and took interest in Indian mathematics. He translated the Katha Sarit Sagara into German. It was published in 1839 in Leipzig and Paris. He wanted to know the technical details of mechanically printing Sanskrit in Leipzig.

Being from a family with a publishing and printing background, he was interested in printing Sanskrit books. In 1841 he wrote a treatise on how to print Sanskrit works with Latin alphabet letters.

He studied Oriental languages at the Universities of Leipzig, Göttingen and Bonn where he was a student of August Wilhelm von Schlegel, the founder of German Indology. Afterwards, he spent several years in France and England. In 1839 he was appointed associate professor of oriental languages at the University of Jena, teaching Sanskrit and Hebrew beginning in the summer term of 1840. In 1841 Brockhaus followed an appointment to Leipzig, where in 1848 he was appointed a full professor of ancient Indian language at the university.

Herman Grassman (1809- 1877): A linguist who laid a firm foundation for Rig Vedic studies. He brought out the first German translation of the Rig Veda and the Dictionary of the Vedic Language with 2000 pages. After becoming a member of the American Orientalist Society, he became further involved in deep studies of Indian classical Literature.

Theodor Benfrey (1809-1881): He studied Panchatanthra, the Indian book of fables. It was released in 1859 and became very popular. Motifs and ideas taken from these Indian legends and fables were incorporated into several German and European folk stories.

Benfey was born into a Jewish family in the small town of Nörten, near the city of Göttingen. At the age of 16, Benfey began his studies at the University of Göttingen, where he studied Greek and Latin languages. Benfey started his teaching career that year in the city of Frankfurt, where he worked and lived for two years. He then took up a position in Heidelberg, where he remained for two years as well. These were to be the last paid teaching position that Benfey would have for nearly 14 years. In 1834, he returned to take up a position at his alma mater, the University of Göttingen.

During his first few years lecturing at the University of Gottingen, he had also begun work on a lexicon of Greek roots. It was actually by chance that Benfey was first introduced to Sanskrit: There was a wager made that Benfey could not teach himself Sanskrit in time to review a new translation of a Sanskrit book, a mere four weeks. But Benfey did teach himself the language and was able to review the Latin-Sanskrit edition of the Markandeya Purana for an academic journal. This feat of learning is made all the more impressive by the fact that the only books on Sanskrit available at the time were H. H. Wilson's Sanskrit-English Dictionary, and Monier Monier-Williams's Sanskrit grammar, neither of which were particularly helpful, as they only superficially covered Vedic Sanskrit. The much-deserved promotion to a paid, entry-level "assistant professor" did not come until 1848, and only when Benfey and his family had converted from Judaism to Christian Protestantism.

From this time Benfey's attention was principally given to Sanskrit. In 1848 he became an assistant professor, and published his edition of the Samaveda; in 1852–1854 his Handbuch der Sanskritsprache ("Manual of Sanskrit"), comprising a grammar and chrestomathy; in 1858 his Practical Sanskrit Grammar, afterwards translated into English; and in 1859 his edition of the Panchatantra. At length, in 1862, the growing appreciation of foreign scholars shamed it into making him a full professor, and in 1866 Benfey published the laborious work by which he is on the whole best known, his great Sanskrit-English Dictionary.

Hermann Otto (1815 -1904): German linguist. He brought out the Dictionary of the Sanskrit Language.

Theodor Aufrecht (1821- 1907): He was known for his great compilation of all Sanskrit manuscripts published by 1902. (16) He was the first Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology at the University of Edinburgh and subsequently spent two decades as a Professor of Indology at the University of Bonn. Aufrecht was born in Leschnitz, Prussian Silesia, into a Jewish family; he later adopted Christianity. He was educated at Humboldt-Universität in Berlin, graduating in 1847, in which year he also published a treatise on Sanskrit accent (De Accentu Sancritico, Bonn, 1847), originally his dissertation.

In 1852 he moved to Oxford to assist Max Muller in preparation of his edition of Rig Veda with Sāyaṇa's commentary. He studied at the Bodleian Library and prepared a catalogue of its collection of Sanskrit manuscripts. From 1862 until 1875, he was a professor at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland, where he occupied the newly established chair of Sanskrit and comparative philology. In 1875, Aufrecht was appointed to the chair of Indology at the University of Bonn and remained in that post until 1889. Between 1891 and 1903, he published a three-volume alphabetical catalogue of all Sanskrit manuscript collections known at the time, in a work titled, Catalogus Catalogorum. This was the first such attempt to catalogue all Indian manuscripts, built on Aufrecht's previous catalogues of Sanskrit manuscripts of libraries of Trinity College, Cambridge (1869), Florence (1892), Leipzig (1901), and München (1909).

George Buhler (1837-1898): He is known for the translation of Manusmriti, published in 1886. Born in Hanover, he studied at Gottingen and received a doctorate in eastern languages, in 1856. That same year he went to Paris to study Sanskrit manuscripts, and from 1859 onwards to London, where he remained until October 1862. This time was used mainly for the study of the Vedic manuscripts at the India Office and the Bodleian Library at Oxford University.

He was a nominated professor of oriental languages at Elphinstone College, Mumbai, and became an education inspector of Gujarat and Sanskrit manuscripts at Bombay presidency. He spent his free time deciphering the edicts of Asoka. He wrote books on Jainism in 1887 which were published in Vienna. (17) He was interested in learning Brahmi script. He published the oldest Prakrit books in Germany. His most significant work was on the origin of the Kharoshthi script. Another publication was Digest on Hindu Laws, which contained several types of law citations. His monumental work of translations of the Apasthambha Dharma Sutra appeared in the Sacred Books of the East compiled by Max muller.

In 1880 he returned to Europe and taught as a professor of Indian philology and archaeology at the University of Vienna, where he worked until the end of his life. On 8 April 1898 Bühler drowned in Lake Constance, under somewhat mysterious circumstances. Contemporary accounts mostly attributed it to an accident, but it has been speculated that it was a suicide motivated by Bühler's connections to a scandal involving his former student Alois Anton Führer. (18)

In Germany, a Sanskrit chair was established in 1816 as Franz Bopp propounded the theory of common ancestry for Sanskrit, Greek and Latin languages. This theory led to the evolution of common Philology theory.


____________________


1. J. Sundberg, in International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, 2009
2. For the full list of these early letters see John Correia-Afonso, Jesuit Letters and Indian History: A Study of the Nature and Development of the Jesuit Letters from India (1542–1773) and Their Value for Indian Historiography (Bombay: Indian Historical Research Institute, St. Xavier’s College, 1955)
3. Donald F. Lach and Edwin J. Van Kley, Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume III: A Century of Advance (Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 1986–93
4. Diogo Gonçalves, História do Malavar, ed. Joseph Wicki (Münster: Aschenforffshe Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1955. Quoted in The Jesuit Historiography of the Jesuit Missions in India by Ines G. Županov, https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/jesuit-historiography-online/the-historiography-of-the-jesuit-missions-in-india-15001800-COM_192579
5. Sylvia Murr, L’Inde philosophique entre Bossuet et Voltaire: L’indologie du père Coeurdoux, vol. 2 (Paris: EFEO, 1987), quoted in G Supanov's article.
6. Amsterdam: J.F. Bernard, 1723–37, quoted in Supanov
7. Propagation of the Gospel in the East: Being an Account of the Success of Two Danish Missionaries, Lately Sent to the East-Indies for the Conversion of the Heathens in Malabar (London: J. Downing, 1709)
8. Acta Orientalia,3 (1926) pp.38-51

9.Vogel, Clause, Heinrich Roth, NDB 22, 2005, p. 106.

10.Instructio A.R.P. Generalis Francisci Piccolomini pro P(atre) Henrico R(oth) Ingolstadio ad missionem Aethiopicam profecturo (1639); cf. Anton Huonder, Deutsche Jesuitenmissionare des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts, Freiburg, 1899, pp. 213 sq. (German)

11. Bernier mentions Roth several times in his Voyage dans les États du Grand Mogol, Paris, 1671 (cf. the English translation in Travels in Hindustan, new ed., Calcutta, 1904, pp. 109.)

12. Athanasius Kircher: China monumentis qua sacris qua profanis nec non variis naturae et artis spectaculis aliarumque rerum memorabilium argumentis illustrata. Amsterdam 1667; pp. 91 sqq. (Iter ex Agra Mogorum in Europam ex relatione PP. Joh(anni) Gruberi et H(enrici) Roth) and pp. 156-162 (Itinerarium St. Thomae Apost. ex Judaea in Indiam and Dogmata varia fabulossissima Brachmanorum); cf. also Max Müller, Lectures on the Science of Language, London, 1866, p. 277.

13. Relatio rerum notabilium Regni Mogor in Asia, Straubing, 1665, and Aschaffenburg, 1668 (which contains the first information concerning Kabul to reach Europe)

14. Arnulf Camps, Studies in Asian Mission History 1956-1998, Leiden/Boston/Köln, 2000, pp. 75-104 (partly German).

15. Claus Vogel, An old letter from Surat written by German Jesuit Heinrich Roth. In: Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 58, 1987, pp. 609-619.

16. Heather Jane Sharkey - Cultural Conversions: Unexpected Consequences of Christian Missionary in Middle East Africa & South Asia, 2013. 

17. Missionary Pedagogy and Christianization of the Heathens: The Educational Institutions Introduced by the Basel Mission in Mangalore. German Contributions to the Study of Indian regional languages and Sanskrit official website 2014.

18. Charles Allen (2010), The Buddha and Dr Führer: An Archaeological Scandal, Penguin Books India, pp. 173–176

Other references:

1. Hosten, Jesuit Missionaries in Northern India, 1580-1803 (Calcutta, 1906), p 30

2. Balfour, Encyclopedia of India (London, 1885)

3. Ravi N C, Linking Languages Through Missions: The German Scholarship Towards Indian Pedagogy, International Journal of Academic Research, vol 2, issue 2 (5), April -June 2015

4. German Contributions to the Study of Indian regional languages and Sanskrit official website 2014.

5. Arnulf Camps, The Sanskrit Grammar and Manuscripts of Father Heinrich Roth S. J. (1620–1668). Introduction. The History of his Sanskrit Manuscripts. in Arnulf Camps- Studies in Asian mission history, 1956-1998, Leiden/Boston/Koln, 2000

6. Missionary pedagogy and Christianization of the heathens: The educational institutions introduced by the Basel Mission in Mangalore, Indian Economic & Social History Review December 2008 45: 509-551.

© Ramachandran 

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